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By J. Masinja

The mining industry is known to be a potential major contributor to the industrial development of any economy. Large-scale mining has been going on in Zambia for the last 100 years. The impact of mining in Zambia has been to create a development corridor along the line of rail to the Copperbelt Province, where hitherto, mining was concentrated, and then to develop a large consolidated high-density economic zone covering an area of about 72 km by 60km. This area is home to a number of very large integrated copper/cobalt mining complexes. The mining zone has expanded to the Northwestern Province in the last 10 years, where the largest copper mine in Africa now exists, having produced about 300 000 tonnes of copper in 2011. The total output of the Zambian mining industry is now about 820 000 tonnes per annum with projections of reaching 1.5 million by 2015, due to new Greenfield investments expected to come online by then. These new mining industry developments have come on the back of strong and sustained high base metal prices, in the last 10 years or so, due to demand mainly from China and India. This new lease of life has increased the contribution of the sector to the national treasury. The mining industry in Zambia has undergone a very important ownership restructuring with the sale of the previously Government owned parastatal, Zambia Consolidated Copper Mines (ZCCM) which dominated the sector, to allow for private sector participation. The privatization process lasted from about 1995 to about 2002. The recent growth of the mining sector has unfortunately not been matched by an adequate supply of skilled manpower for various reasons. These include: (i) A lack of strong in-house training strategies by the new mine owners (ii) Decrease in industry support to the training institutions (iii) The demise of and restructuring of ZCCM which has consequently limited the Government human resources planning tools for the mining sector (iv) The cyclic nature for the fortunes of the sector has lead to fluctuating interest of student recruitment into training institutions (v) Limitations, both staff and equipment, in the training institutions (vi) A re-structuring of the training institutions This paper examines the current status, and student output from tertiary training institutions for the mining sector in Zambia. This is then compared to the skilled labour demands of the sector. The various cause and effect issues are considered and a proposal on how this skills gap could be addressed sustainably is proposed. Keywords: skills gap, graduate training, quality of graduates

Sep 1, 2012

By D. I. Verrelli

Within the flotation community a belief has developed that some particle shapes are more ?floatable? than others. This is usually attributed to an influence of particle shape or roughness on the induction period required to achieve attachment between the particles and the air bubbles in the pulp. Up to now, such measurements have not been able to readily isolate the effect on individual flotation subprocesses. In contrast, our experimental apparatus, the CSIRO Milli-Timer, enables us to directly observe the process of particle?bubble interaction and attachment by means of a high-speed video recording, thus providing a direct measure of the induction period for attachment. To assess the influence of particle shape on induction time we used two varieties of methylated borosilicate glass particles ? spheres and angular ?frit? ? in a range of tightly-sized fractions. In doing this, we take care to account for the influence of other factors that could affect the induction time, such as the polar angle of sliding commencement, and approach velocity. These parameters are recorded as variables for each interaction, and corrected for using multiple nonlinear regression. Our results illustrate the importance of particle shape on induction period, with angular particles exhibiting induction periods that were an order of magnitude lower than those of spheres. Furthermore, the induction period was seen to decrease with increasing particle velocity, or kinetic energy on approach, but increased as the trajectory approached the limit of just grazing the bubble. Particle shape in mineral processing is a consequence chiefly of the mineral type and the type of grinding employed. The results presented herein indicate that attention should be paid to the shape of particles obtained from the grinding operation, besides particle size. Keywords: attachment, bubbles, flotation, induction period, particles, shape effects, surface roughness

Sep 1, 2012

By A. K. Majumder

In an effort to test the extent to which fundamental fluid mechanics can provide a prediction of particle separation, a study on a simple parallel-sided sluice has been carried out using glass bead and ilmenite mixtures at various particle concentrations and flow rates. Great care was taken to devise a flow splitter at the end of the sluice that permitted accurate measurement of the fluid flow profile and collection of slurry samples, allowing evaluation of the particle species concentration profiles. The actual particle separation taking place was compared to predictions made by first describing the fluid flow by a modified ?law of the wall? model. The hydrostatic pressure variation in the flow was taken into account and the eddy viscosity was calculated from a mixing length expression incorporating Van Driest?s damping function. Using an average density and viscosity provides an explicit expression for the velocity gradient that can be numerically integrated for the flow profile. The particle concentration distributions were then modelled with Hunt?s sediment transport model assuming the particle eddy diffusion coefficient to be the same as that for the water. Hindered settling velocities of the particles were calculated using Brauer and Thiele?s formula, which takes the particle size and density distributions and solids volumetric concentration into account. The resulting predictions of particle separation are shown to be a strong function of the settling velocities of the particles used. Keywords: flowing film concentrators, fluid velocity

Sep 1, 2012

By Å Sandström

Loussavaara-KiirunavaaraAB?s (LKAB) iron ore mine, Kiirunavaara, is of magnetite type and associated with apatite, a calcium phosphate mineral. Rare earth elements (REE) have been found in connection with the apatite but also in other minerals. An apatite concentrate was produced by flotation, in order to investigate the possibilities to extract REE from the apatite by hydrometallurgical means. The content of rare earth elements calculated as oxides (REO) was 0.44% in the concentrate. Initially, leaching was done with large excess of sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid, and nitric acid to study the REE solubility with different acids. In sulfuric acid, the leaching recoveries of the different REE varied between 35% and 69%. The reasons for the relative low recoveries, were that the rare earth elements precipitated together with huge amounts of gypsum, that was formed during leaching. However, both hydrochloric- and nitric acid gave almost complete extraction of the REE into solution. Analysis of the small leaching residue obtained, revealed, that mainly the light REE remained in the residue indicating that a small part of the light REE were present in the concentrate, in some acid, insoluble mineral other than apatite. With the aim to separate the REE from the phosphoric acid, the solutions from hydrochloric- and nitric acid leaching were neutralized to a pH of approximately 2 with ammonia. During neutralization, REE were precipitated as phosphates with good recoveries and a concentrate of 10.5% REO suitable for further upgrading was obtained, while the remaining solution can be used for fertilizer production. In further solvent extraction studies, it was shown, that after re-dissolution the REE could be effectively extracted by Cyanex 923, thus allowing for purification from calcium and phosphate ions. The REE were finally stripped from the organic phase and a REE nitrate solution was produced. Keywords: apatite, rare earth elements, REE, leaching, solvent extraction, cyanex 923

Sep 1, 2012

By Zhangm Zeqiang, Manman Lu, Hanquan Zhang, Hong Yu, Jintao Fu

"Pelletizing is an important technique in the ironmaking industry. Artificial and natural magnetites are materials that are widely utilized in the iron ore pelletizing process. In this work, the pelletizing characteristics of these two types of magnetite have been investigated in detail. The obtained results shown that in contrast to natural magnetite, the artificial magnetite concentrate exhibits stronger hydrophilicity, lower electronegativity, larger specific surface area, and rougher surface. In addition, the green pellets produced from the artificial magnetite concentrate are characterized by a higher compressive strength as compared to that of the pellets obtained from the natural magnetite concentrate. However, the shock temperature of the artificial magnetite pellets around 255 C is significantly lower than the threshold specified by the industry. The balling characteristics of the material obtained by mixing 20% of the artificial magnetite concentrate with 80% of the natural magnetite concentrate are considerably improved with respect to those of the individual components.INTRODUCTION Pelletization is an essential process of the ironmaking industry in China. Since the pellets produced from iron ore exhibit high mechanical strength, good particle granularity, and uniform shapes, pelletizing high-grade iron ores with good metallurgical reducibility can lower the coke ratio, improve their technico-economic index, and reduce the cost of processing pig iron in blast furnaces[1, 2]. Presently, high-grade magnetite is a material utilized for pelletizing various iron ores across the globe. However, its natural deposits have been depleting rapidly in recent years; as a result[3], China’s dependence on the foreign high-grade iron ores exceeded 70% in 2009 and reached the level of 87% in 2016. Hence, possible methods for the efficient cultivation of limonite, siderite, hematite, and other refractory minerals that correspond to low-grade, finely sized, inhomogeneous, and scattered iron ores have attracted significant attention [4, 5]. In particular, magnetization reduction roasting and magnetic separation techniques, which are widely utilized for obtaining high-grade artificial magnetite, represent effective ways of processing iron ores that can alleviate the scarcity of natural magnetite resources [6, 7]. The artificial magnetite produced by magnetization reduction roasting exhibits different characteristics as compared with those of natural magnetite (including the degree of hydrophilicity, surface potential, specific surface area, and other surface physicochemical properties[8-11], which significantly affect its pelletizing behavior. In this work, the surface characteristics of artificial and natural magnetites are investigated in detail, and their effect on their pelletizing properties (such as green ball strength, heat stability, and pelletization rate) are examined."

Jan 1, 2018

By M. R. Hosseini

Among all gravity concentration methods, Shaking-table is the most effective one from the metallurgical point of view. In this study, Shaking-table was used for concentrating a manganese ore sample from Ghasem Abad area in Kerman, Iran. Experiments were designed by using L8Taguchi design with five variables and each variable in two levels. The influence of each variable and their interactions on the operation of the device was studied. The variables under investigation were: table slope, table frequency, water flowrate, feed rate, and particle size. The manganese concentrate grade and recovery were used as response variables. It was shown that water flowrate, table slope, feed rate, and particle size are the significant variable on concentrate grade; while, all the variables influence manganese recovery.

Jan 1, 2014

By A. P. Liu

Semi-industrial test on fine products of Meishan dressing plant was carried out with type RP80/25 high pressure roller mill produced by Homburg Corporation of Germany, and the influences of such factors as energy consumption, water containing, throughput and circulating load on rolling effect were investigated. Closed circuit experiment result showed that Meishan iron ore could be suitable for powder grinding with high pressure roller mill, and energy consumption of the operation was declined by 25%~30%, which was favorable for energy-saving, increasing production efficiency and improving grinding effects. According to above experimental results, this paper put forward the technical proposal of application of high pressure roller mill in Meishan, and pointed out some technical problems which needed to be settled urgently in technology disposal.

Jan 1, 2014

By N. Syna

The selection and preparation of activated carbon suitable for specific application can often involve exhaustive adsorbent preparation and testing. This work examined an emerging technique based on modelling the correlation of observed adsorption capacity to the carbon characteristics as a means of decoupling the roles of carbon textural and surface chemical properties. The insights to these specific roles are then used in tailor-making adsorbents and in establishing the optimal carbon properties for specific application. In this study, a series of activated carbons prepared from bagasse by physical and chemical techniques and commercially available carbons were used in developing the models. These carbons were tested for the adsorption of thiourea-gold (I) chloride complexes. Thiourea is an important alternative gold lixiviant with the potential to address current ecological and safety concerns in the extraction of gold. A four-component model, which correlated the adsorption gold capacity to carbon textural and surface chemical properties, was proposed. The model fit was assessed using multi-linear regression and a partial F-test. This was followed by goodness of fit test achieved through r2, adjusted?r2 and mean square error (MSE) values. The results suggest the adsorption of the gold-thiourea complex is strongly influenced by the internal surface area and pH of the carbon. Tailor-made activated carbon from bagasse showed adsorption gold capacities of up to 198 mgAu/g adsorbent, demonstrating the potential of bagasse as a precursor for gold adsorbents and of this empirical modelling approach in developing adsorbents for metal recovery.

Jan 1, 2014

By J. P. Dai

The Fankou Mine in Guangdong province, China, processes a polymetallic ore containing averagely 4.2% Pb, 8.5% Zn, and 90 g/t Ag. The main metal minerals including sphalerite, galena and pyrite are very finely disseminated and unevenly occurred in the ore, making it difficult to liberate them from each other. This paper presents the processing technology of the Fankou plant and the characteristic features of the novel technology applied.

Jan 1, 2014

By Marzio Piller, Girolamo Belardi, Jure Mencinger, Paolo Bozano, Gianni Schena

"The hydrodynamics of the Tri-Flo™, a two stage cylindrical cyclone used in dense media separation, is studied using Computational Fluid Dynamics. The flow field is simulated with an Euler-Euler Volume of Fluid two-phase approach and the Reynolds stress turbulence model.A unique feature of the device is that the separation medium suspension is pumped and introduced tangentially into the two cylindrical compartments while the raw feed is conveyed to the feed hopper and fed at the axial inlet. This feature allows to use less pumping energy and limits the unavoidable production of fines. The Tri-Flo™ complex flow pattern is little known but central to the efficiency of the separation.The velocity field is computed within the two compartments of the separator. The interface of the air-core that forms in the inner axial part of the cylindrical sections is identified and visualized. The numerical results for a reduced-size 100 mm ID Tri-Flo™ are compared against laser Doppler measurements on a transparent acrylic model (Chinè, 1995) operated with water. The robustness of the model and its prediction capability are verified.The possibility to accurately predict the velocity profiles within the vessel and their dependence on the main Tri-Flo™ operating and geometrical variables paves the way to a better understanding of the functioning of the separator, its design improvements and scale-up."

Jan 1, 2014

By Megha Patel

"The objective of this project was to investigate the application of Prompt Gamma Neutron Activation Analysis (PGNAA) technology to provide real-time on-belt elemental analysis of feed ore in base metal sulphide processing, in this case at the Mount Isa Mines Zinc-Lead Concentrator Heavy Medium Plant (HMP). After initial exploratory testwork proved successful, a Geoscan On-Belt Elemental Analyser was retrofitted onto the existing HMP feed conveyor. Dynamic calibration of the Geoscan was conducted based on laboratory XRF analysis results of the HMP feed conveyor hammer autosampler samples from May to November 2013. Comparison of the Geoscan results to the laboratory XRF analysis results during and after dynamic calibration indicated the technology had acceptable accuracy to be incorporated into HMP process control. The variation between the two sets of data includes all primary sampling, sample preparation and XRF analysis errors as well as the Geoscan errors themselves. The Geoscan instrument precision must be calculated separately through a duplicate sampling campaign and independent laboratory analysis before extending the scope of its range of application beyond HMP process control. The expected benefits of integrating the Geoscan real-time data into HMP process control are optimised HMP metal recovery, improved cost efficiency and improved stability of the downstream processes (milling and flotation). Utilisation of the Geoscan will also enable improved feedback to mines on grade control and dilution, and provide additional information on individual ore types when fed as campaigns to HMP."

Jan 1, 2014

By Bhargav Dhavala, Sristy Raj, Ashok Kumar, Suman Krishna Sit, Adity Ganguly, D. P. Chakraborty

"Tatasteel’s West Bokaro washery#3 is designed to deslime raw coal at 0.5mm; the oversize (+0.5mm) is beneficiated in dense media cyclones (DMC) while the undersize (-0.5mm) is beneficiated in froth flotation (FF) cells. Nearly, 80% of the raw coal feed reports to the DMC circuit consisting of four parallel streams. Presently, the performance of DMCs at washery#3 is interpreted by: (a) comparing the actual plant yield w.r.t the lab predicted yield and (b) misplacement of clean coal to middllings.However, the comparison between actual & lab predicted yield is fallacious given the fact that the lab predicts yield of the borehole sample while the feed received at the plant has different characteristics altogether due to the dilution during mining. To mitigate the said limitations, a quick diagnosis tool using the past data has been developed that will give a prediction of performance of different coal seams in the DMCs, inputs being feed ash to DMCs and stream wise feed specific gravity (coal & magnetite combined).The tool also will help in identifying the root cause on real time basis thereby helping the operator to take necessary corrective actions. The operator can intimate the mining personnel in cases of shale reporting to the feed as a result of dilution during mining. In events of higher standard deviations between the parallel streams w.r.t feed specific gravity, the operator can adjust the parameters accordingly to minimize the yield loss. INTRODUCTION West Bokaro came into existence in 1948, as an independent coal company, managed by M/S Anderson Wright. Tata Steel acquired the Company in 1956 to meet its requirement of metallurgical grade coal for Iron making. Subsequently, in 1976, it was made a division of Tata Steel. In 1974, when coal mines were nationalized, West Bokaro was exempted as it produced coal only for captive consumption of the Steel Works. The first washery of India was set up in West Bokaro. The business objective of the West Bokaro division is to produce clean coal at optimum cost for captive use in the steel plant of Tata Steel at Jamshedpur. The strategy is to reduce ash with minimum loss of yield so that quality of coal improves and yet the cost is beneficial vis-a vis imported coal. The primary product is the metallurgical grade coal for coke ovens, which converts coal into coke for use in the Blast Furnaces."

Jan 1, 2018

By T. Leißner

This contribution deals with the mineral processing of Li-silicate greisen-type ores comprising of quartz, topaz and zinnwaldite (lithium-rich mica). The origin of the greisen-type ores processed is the Ore Mountains(Germany) where it is explored as a potential resource for the production of lithium carbonate. The goal is to develop a process chain for the enrichment of zinnwaldite using dry techniques only. As basis for the investigation the process chain, which historically was used to process the greisen focused on cassiterite and wolframite, is taken and modified towards the zinnwaldite. Starting with crushed material with particle sizes smaller than 35 millimeters, investigations on different approaches to grinding to liberate mica from gangue are carried out. Concentrates of zinnwaldite are then produced by magnetic separation of size fractions. To assess the success of grinding, classification and separation, mineral liberation analysis and atomic absorption spectroscopy are used. The amount of lithium measured in the sample with atomic absorption spectroscopy was used to calculate the content of zinnwaldite based on its known mineral chemistry. Combined with the particle size distributions, product qualities are determined. Altogether, this allows the thorough evaluation of the success of comminution with focus on following steps of concentration. Keywords: lithium, zinnwaldite, magnetic separation, mineral liberation analysis

Sep 1, 2012

By F. Burat

The present research covers the results of experiments carried out with high frequency vibration screen on dewatering of coal fines. In the tests, the addition of surface active reagents was studied employing a high frequency vibrating screen. To increase the efficiency of mechanical dewatering processes, ultrasonic treatment was applied along with surfactants and optimum dewatering conditions were obtained. The moisture content of the feed material was from 82.5% to 41% by the optimization of operation parameters including the angle of the screen, vibration frequency, feed rate and screen opening size. Optimum parameters obtained in dewatering processes carried out with the vibrating screen were kept constant and the effects of surface active reagents and ultrasonic treatment on dewatering were investigated. Finally, the moisture level of the material was further reduced from 41.0% to 37.66%.

Sep 1, 2012

By X. L. Song

A large amount of tailings in concentrators bring a series of problems to the environment and society. It is significant to reclaim the huge tailings and reuse them in industries in order to utilize mineral resources adequately. Primarily Lead-Zinc tailings with a certain quality of clay and feldspar were used to produce ceramic tiles by sintering method under specific technical conditions. By testing the properties of the ceramic tiles, it was shown that the amount of Lead-Zinc tailing used in the tiles was 60%~70%, and the mechanics properties were good. The optimum proportion parameters were Lead-Zinc tailing 60%, clay 35%, feldspar 5%, and the maximum flexural strength of tiles was up to 38.2MPa when it was sintered at 1090? for 30min. Its flexural strength, water absorption and thermal shock resistance reached the State Standard of GB/T4100.4. The product is suitable to be used in pavements and paths of parks.

Jan 1, 2014

By Vladimir G. Kochnev

An innovative AG and SAG technology aimed to be applied in grinding of ores and in the production of construction materials is described. A novel design of a cantilever-type mill capable to operate in autogenous, semi-autogenous and ball grinding mode ensures easy delivery and installation even in remote areas, and low capital and operating costs. Results of the tests of the new heel-shaped liners performed by TTD jointly with ALROSA, MINTEK and Anglo-American Corporation are reported. The approach includes also a novel discharge grid design and a technique of treating the material of critical size. These innovations make grinding in AG and SAG mills dramatically more effective, with an increase in the throughput rate and a reduction in power consumption ranging from 1.5 to 2 times.

Jan 1, 2003

In this study, selective flocculating of diaspore using anion macromolecular reagent as flocculant was tested to separate diaspore from alum-silicate minerals. Firstly, the effect of pH on settling behavior of diaspore and kaolinite dispersions has been investigated. The results show that the maximum settling speed of diaspore and kaolinite appeared re-spectively at pH7 and pH3.33 which is close to the point of zero charge (PZC) of diaspore (6.8) and kaolinite(3.5). This result is in well agreement with the double electric layer theory. Secondly, the settling behavior of diaspore and kaolinite particles in different anion flocculant solution have been researched. The results indicate that flocculant solution concentration significantly affect the selectivity and the flocculating performance of anion molecular. In high concentration solution, both diaspore and kaolinite have faster settling rate compared to blank solution. How-ever, in low concentration solution, the anion macromolecular can enhance the settling rate of diaspore remarkably but has no apparent effect on the settling rate of kaolinite. This result suggests that the tested anion flocculant is a promising reagent for de-silica of diasporic bauxite. Lastly, FTIR method was employed to probe the adsorption mechanism of flocculant on diaspore and kaolinite. The results reveal that there are anion flocculant characteristic bands on the spectra of diaspore but no obvious characteristic bands of flocculant on the FTIR spectrum of kaolinite. This result is in good correspondence with settling test.

Jan 1, 2014

By Avishan Atrafi, Marek Pawlik

"Gas dispersion properties of sodium salts of 6, 12 and 18-carbon fatty acids (hexanoic, lauric and oleic acid) were investigated as a function of pH. A strong effect of pH was observed on gas dispersion properties of fatty acids. At high pH for 12 and 18 carbon fatty acids, at which these surfactants formed a true solution, the gas dispersion properties were similar to those of MIBC. In the case of sodium hexanoate, which has a much higher solubility than the longer chain fatty acids and therefore does not form precipitates, the gas dispersion properties of this surfactant were strongly enhanced in the acidic pH range, where hexanoic acid was fully associated. This result is an indication that undissociated hexanoic acid is much more surface-active than anionic hexanoate. Only a small effect of the surfactant chain length on gas dispersion properties of the tested reagents was observed. The measured critical coalescence concentration (CCC95) values increase slightly by decreasing chain length and range from 5.8 x 10-5 mol/L (17.7 mg/L) for sodium oleate to 7.2 x 10-5 mol/L (16 mg/L) for sodium laurate at pH 10 and 1.9 x 10-4 mol/L (26 mg/L) for sodium hexanoate at pH 3.7. These are compared to CCC95 of MIBC, which is measured to be 8 x 10-5 mol/L (8 mg/L). The soluble molecular species were recognized as the most effective species in preventing bubble coalescence."

Jan 1, 2014

By A. Oberrauner

Electrostatic separation is a dry separation technique usable for many applications in the mining- and recycling industries. At the Chair of Mineral Processing intensified research has been done on this topic during the last years. One challenge was to measure the triboelectric charging of fine mineral particles in a triboelectric charging device consisting of an electrically insulated polyethylene rotor/stator assembly. These tests, performed on monomineralic samples, were accomplished in a climate chamber. It was shown that charging of minerals not only depends on rotor speed, feed rate and atmospheric circumstances but also on the properties of the applied electrostatic field. Tests on pure calcite in contact with the polyethylene rotor/stator system resulted in specific triboelectric charges up to +10 nC/g at low relative humidity. With more water present in the surrounding atmosphere, these charging values decreased significantly. However, at higher relative humidity, triboelectric charge values could be maintained after an electrostatic field of positive polarity was applied. Similarly, charging behavior was found with other hydrophilic minerals. The idea behind all these tests was to find the largest charging difference between minerals occurring together in a deposit and to be able to charge them oppositely, assuming that this means good sort ability in an electrostatic separator. The results gained from these investigations are shown. After having obtained many results on charging pure minerals, it became interesting to test the applicability of the charging tendencies on electrostatic separation of fines <100 µm. In order to do so, a separator for fine polymineralic powders was developed, constructed and combined with the triboelectric charging device, all being set up in a climate chamber. This new so-called coax-separator is presented along with first test-results.

Sep 1, 2012

By S. Patra, R. Venugopal

"The quality of pellets produced is affected by quality anssastd quantity of green pellets, amount of addition of binders, type of binders added, amount of moisture added along with the other variables like rotation, inclination and fineness of feed. The green pellet quality depends upon chemistry, mineralogy and granulometry of fines used for pellet making, the feed size, its moisture content and porosity. During firing of green pellets ingredients present within reacts to form different phases and microstructure. So in turn physical and metallurgical properties of pellets are influenced by amount and type of binder and flux addition, induration time and temperature. During iron making process, the metallurgical properties of fired pellets are decided by the type and amount of these phases and their chemistry. Green pelletizing and induration studies have been already carried out with hematite ore fines. Indian iron ores of high alumina content showing different pelletizing characters, these studies can’t be directly interpreted. The main objective of proposed research work is to understand the green pelletizing process and determine the water bentonite interaction at different levels. Detailed investigation on swelling behavior of bentonite and microstructure of the green pellets of iron ore fines from SAIL captive iron ore fines from the Barsua in the state of Odisha. To convert these ore fines into pellets, the key raw material, additives and process variables that influence the pellet quality needs to be identified.INTRODUCTION Pelletization is the unit operation of agglomerating iron bearing fines (generally below 150µ with 65-80% passing 40µ) by tumbling in horizontal rotating drums or inclined discs, (Sivrikaya and Arol, 2013; Bhuiyan et al., 2011; Forsmo et al., 2006; Sastry et al., 2003) and the pellets are approximately spherical lumps formed by this process in presence of water and binder, on subsequent induration at 1300°c (Sivrikaya and Arol, 2014; Sivrikaya and Arol, 2013; Sivrikaya and Arol, 2012; Sivrikaya and Arol, 2010; Sastry et al., 2003; Kawatra and Ripke, 2003; Iveson, 2001a; Iveson, 2001b)."

Jan 1, 2018