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By Charles S. Barrett, Frederick N. Rhines, Robert F. Mehl

The solid solutions which aluminum forms with copper, and with magnesium and silicon, are not extensive, and accordingly could not be expected to form Widmanstatten figures profusely nor with great ease. A study of the Widmanstatten figures in these systems seemed desirable, however, because of the interest which these alloys bear towards age-hardening theories resulting from the necessary relationship between the age-hardening phenomena and the atomic processes leading to the formation of Widmanstatten figures.' Alloys of Aluminum with Copper The most accurate determination of the solid solubi1it.y of copper in aluminum seems to be that by Dix and Richardsoq2 whose results are represented in Fig. 1. According to this work, aluminum dissolves 5.6 weight per cent of copper at 548", and less than one per cent at room temperature. Judging from the constitutional diagram, this solid solu-lion on cooling tends to precipitate the compound CuA12, and this conclusion has been confirmed experimentally by Schmid and Wassermann.

Jan 1, 1932

By Louis R. Hodell

WHEN the drilling of an oil well is completed a permanent opening from the reservoir to the surface must be provided. This is done by lining the hole with pipe, commonly known as casing. In the past, all but a small amount of casing has been run in the hole and joined by threads and couplings. Recently, however, in California, Texas, and Oklahoma, there has been a definite tendency 'to adopt -the welded joint for the following reasons: (1) Plain end casing for welding may be bought for 15 per cent less than thread-and-coupled casing; some of this is offset by the cost of welding the pipe in the hole but a respectable net profit remains.

Jan 1, 1937

By Clyde E. Williams

THROUGHOUT its history the American iron and steel industry has constantly striven to improve the quality and reduce the cost of its products. No one needs to be told how well it has succeeded. Its success in making steel products at such a low cost has been achieved mainly through large-scale production. While costs have gone down as the rate of production and the degree of mechanization increased, quality of product has been actually improved. Thus high-tonnage records are important only in the light of high quality of the steel. Quality is the watchword! Continual improvement in quality has come as a result of research, not only in the laboratory but in the large commercial units in the plant. In fact, so many operations of the industry are on such a huge scale that experimental work must be done under commercial operating conditions so every progressive steel plant is a research laboratory.

Jan 1, 1938

AGGLOMERATION U.S. 4,067,727 - In the sintering of a charge of iron oxide ore, a fuel and a flux on a travelling grate machine, the dust problem is minimized by providing a plurality of cooling zones and by directing heated dust-laden air from a first cooling zone to the sintering zone wherein the dust is filtered from the air by the material being sintered. Air from a further cooling zone can be exhausted directly to the atmosphere. Dust removal in the cooling zone is improved by using a purging zone in which higher pressure air agitates the dust in the sintered material. This patent is a division of U.S. Patent No. 3,973,762, dated Aug. 10, 1976. F. Cappel, assigned to Dravo Corp. Jan. 10, 1978. 6 pp. (75-5). Filed: 4-1-76 (672,748).

Jan 1, 1979

By Norman Braly

THE following is not offered as an extended paper on the subject of shaft sinking, but more as a description of the present practice of shaft sinking in the Butte district. The Anaconda company is sinking at present the following shafts: Badger State, Moose, Mountain Consolidated, Mountain View, Pennsyl-ania and Tropic. At the High Ore and Leonard mines the shafts are being deepened by sinking two compartments and will subsequently be enlarged to the full working size by raising alongside the compartments which are now being sunk. The following other companies are also sinking shafts: Butte-Alex Scott, Butte and Zenith City, Boston and Corbin, North Butte Mining Co. (at the Granite Mountain shaft), East Butte Co. (at the Pittsmont shaft), and the Rainbow Lode Development Co. Shaft Timbering. The shafts of the Butte district, generally speaking, are of three compartments arranged in a straight line, and the pump compartment is usually arranged for the use of an auxiliary hoisting cage, as well as for carrying pipe lines and electric wires. The Rainbow shaft is practically square, and of three compartments. The length of the shafts outside of timber will vary from 17 to 22 ft., and the width from 6 ft. 6 in. to 7 ft. Fir timber is used in all shaft work. This may be obtained from the Coast, when it is known as Coast fir, or from Idaho or Montana, when it is known as native fir. The native fir seems to be the tougher wood, but it is hard to obtain clear lumber in the lengths and sizes necessary for shaft work. Some of the shaft timber of the Anaconda company has been treated with creosote as a preservative, but this practice has not come into general use, as the ground of the camp is so heavy that the timbers usually crush before they rot. The size of timber most .used for shaft work is 12 by 12 in., while 10 by 12 in., 10 by 14 in. and 12 by 14 in. are used for some of the special pieces around the shaft. The new Leonard shaft is timbered with 14 by 14 in. wall plates throughout.

Jan 8, 1913

By G. Howell Clevenger

FORMERLY great divergence of opinion existed in regard to the influence of copper in steel, as affecting its various physical properties. More recently the investigations of Stead,1 Breuil,2 Wigham,3 Burgess and Aston,4 Ball and Wingham,5 Miiller,6 Dillner,7 and others have shown fairly good agreement in the major points. Copper steel has been shown by these investigators to possess special properties which make it valuable for certain uses. The general range of composition of the useful alloys of copper and iron, and of copper, iron, and carbon, has been quite definitely established, for the former by Burgess and Aston,8 and for the latter by Breuil 9 and Stead.10 Stead 11 has removed one difficulty in reconciling certain of the earlier data by calling particular attention to the influence of carbon in copper steels. Another point which caused confusion in the earlier investigations, particularly in regard to " red-shortness," was the presence of sulphur. Failure to note the presence of sulphur often led to attributing " red-shortness " to the presence of small amounts of copper. Turner 12 has called attention to the fact that where copper exists in an iron ore it often occurs as the sulphide, so that the presence of copper in steel made from such ores might also, necessarily, mean the presence of sulphur. It is evident that the effect in this case might be quite different than where pure copper was added.

Jan 10, 1913

By D. B. RUSHhIORE

I. INTRODUCTION. OF primary importance in mine-installations is the hoist, which has a very direct bearing on the successful operation of a mine. Conditions vary greatly with different mines, and especially in different localities. Such factors as depth, incline, the number of levels, permissible or desirable speeds, conditions of ore, etc., are always more or less special in each case. Veins of ore are never exactly duplicated, and the nature of the ground through which shafts are sunk may considerably modify permissible values. As mining-laws are made by the different States, they necessarily vary somewhat, and, even when not fully observed, they introduce factors which qualify the conditions of hoisting men and ore. The amount of timbering required is often of importance as relating to hoisting-conditions. Methods of loading ore affect the time required, as also does the question of the use of cars or skips. Safety-precautions must be very carefully considered, and the number of men in each mine, the number of compartments, and often the method of removing water from the mine, must. have careful consideration. While a general discussion of the subject. of hoisting is possible, most cases are entirely special, and can be considered only in connection with the peculiar conditions pertaining to that particular installation. The cost of installation of the hoisting-plant may be an appreciable amount, while the cost of raising the ore may be but a small part of the total operating-charge. In many cases, however, the output of the mine is limited by the capacity of the hoist, and the latter thus becomes of the first importance. * Presented also, by mutual agreement, at the meeting of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, New York, N. Y., Mar. 11, 1910.

May 1, 1910

By N. A. Gokcen, S. Fujishiro

The dissociation pressure of Cr3C2 has been measured in the range of 1908" to 2237°K by means of graphite Knudsen effusion cells. It has been found that Cr3C2 vaporizes according to the following reaction: 1/3 Cr3C2 (s or 1) = 2/3 C (graph.) + Cr (g). The equilibrizcm pressure, P, of Cr (g) is found to be log Ps=- - (21,194/T) + 6.525 over solid Cr3C2 and estimated as log P, = - (19,535/T) + 5.76 over liquid Cr3C2. CARBIDES of chromium are of great importance in alloy steels and cemented carbides. The published data on their therm odynamic properties at high temperatures, however, are meager. The heat capacity and change in entropy of Cr3C2 were determined calorimetrically by Kelley and Moore1 in the range of approximately 50" to 300°K, and by Oriani and Murphy2 from 297" to 1188°K. The standard entropy of Cr3C2at 298.15°K, obtained by Kelley.7 was later confirmed by DeSorbo.4 Equilibrium in the reaction was investigated by Boericke.5 A recent tabular summary

Jan 1, 1962

By J. A. Harrison

The physical composition of coal and the distribution of its physical constituents will partially determine the efficiency of the process chosen for coal preparation. Distribution and concentration of coal macerals will, to a degree, be controlled by preparation processes. A number of preparation processes have been evaluated to determine this interrelation. These evaluations will help provide information needed for the production of coal that meets definite petrographic composition specifications. etrographic composition and degree of coalifica-tion of coal can determine the choice of cleaning processes and equipment used in coal preparation. The purpose of this paper is to present data on studies of the preparation processes of breakage, sizing, cleaning, and blending and to show the effect coal's petrographic composition has on these processes. Herrin (No. 6) and Danville (No. 7) Coals from Illinois were used in these tests. Nomenclature used herein is that approved in the Glossary of the International Committee for Coal Petrology,' based primarily on the Stopes-Heerlen system of classification2 and used in coal petrography laboratories throughout the world. BREAKAGE TESTS Breakage tests of Illinois coals related to petrographic composition have been conducted at various times at the Illinois State Geological Survey. These tests have been classified under two headings -impact tests and compression tests. Impact tests, as the name implies, consisted of breaking the coal by a sharp, sudden force. Impact tests were further divided into fall tests and block tests. Compression tests consisted of applying a constant pressure on a piece of coal until the coal fractured.

Jan 1, 1963

By B. Hyatt, E. Klokholm

The reesistivity of Cu-Pd alloys of 9.6 to 29 pct Pd alloys was measured after plastic deformzation in tension. For all compositions a continzting decrease in resistivity with increasing plastic strain was observed. By comparison with the results of Damask on a brass ad Cu3Au, it was deduced that these anonzalous decreases in resistivity are due to the decrease in short-vunge order caused by cold work. An anomalous decrease in the resistivity of cold-worked CU-Pd alloys was first reported by Jaumot and Sawatzky.' They observed decreases in the electrical resistivity when disordered Cu-Pd alloys drawing at room temperature. Recently, a similar anomaly was reported by Aarts and Houston-Mac-Mi1lan2 in Ag-Pd alloys containing 10 to 45 pct Pd. The plastic deformation in this case was produced by tensile strain at liquid-nitrogen temperatures. For AE-Pd alloys the relative resistivity change becomes positive for tensile strains of about 20 pct.

Jan 1, 1960

By S. J. Matas, R. F. Hehemann

The existence of two distinct forms of bainite—upper and lower bainite—in hypoeutectoid steels is confirmed by a systematic study of the structure of the product resulting from this mode of austenite decomposition. The transition between these two forms occurs at about 650° F regardless of the alloy content of the steel and their structural differences can be interpreted in terms of the kinetics of carbide precipitation from supersaturated ferrite. In the past few years, a renewed interest has been displayed in the kinetics and mechanism of the bainite reaction in steels. Several rather divergent models for the transformation mechanism have evolved from these studies,'-' however, it is difficult to evaluate these models critically on the basis of the existing experimental data. In particular, a more detailed knowledge of the structure of bainite should be helpful in providing a framework for the construction of an appropriate model. Metallographic studies7-l4 have led to a recognition of at least two distinct forms of bainite—frequently termed upper and lower bainite. Although the morphology of bainite changes with reaction tem- perature, there appears to be a relatively sharp transition between the two forms. This occurs in a narrow temperature range near 650° F. Transformation at temperatures below about 650° F results in the presence within the bainite of small plates of carbides oriented at an angle of 60 deg with respect to the direction of growth of the plate, while at higher temperatures carbides are oriented parallel to the growth direction. There is no generally accepted view regarding the significance of this structural transition. Some authors feel that carbides precipitate from austenite at all reaction temperatures1' while others claim, at least for low-temperature bainite, that carbides precipitate from supersaturated ferrite.14.15 It was recognized many years ago that the nature of the carbide in bainite depends on the reaction temperature. The carbide hase in upper bainite is unmistakenly cementite.16-19 The exact nature of the carbide in low-temperature bainite is less certain. Magnetic measurements of lower bainite reveal no cementite Curie point21'22 and dilatometric studiesz0 produce total expansions which are larger than those predicted on the basis of a ferrite-plus cementite structure. These effects have been attributed to the

Jan 1, 1962

By J. S. Vanick

AN extremely hard, tough, and strong, white or chilled cast iron has been applied for the past several years to industrial and mining services in which its unusual properties have been confirmed by its ability to deliver in many instances much better performance than plain chilled iron, or other wear-resistant materials. It is being produced regularly by alloying a good base composition of chilled or white cast iron with essentially 4 to 6 per cent of nickel and 1 to 2.5 per cent of chromium. Such a material can attain a hardness exceeding 600 to 750 Brinell as against 380 to 530 for corresponding grades of plain chilled iron. The strength is approximately doubled and the toughness significantly increased. These properties make it especially useful for many applica-tions requiring a high hardness for resistance to wear, abrasion, attrition, deformation; to some extent to high compressive loading and to a lesser but important degree to corrosive action. A wide variety of commercial castings is being successfully produced from this iron, ranging in size from the small-grain grinding plates or burrs through medium-sized castings such as sand pumps up to large, heavy castings such as rolls for metal rolling or cement grinding. The composition of this white cast iron may be roughly bracketed within the range shown in Table 1.

Jan 1, 1933

By Edwin Ludlow

For many years, coal has been known to exist in the valley of the Sabinas river, in the State of Coahuila, and for about 15 years it has been worked by the Mexican International Railway Co., which opened mines for its own fuel-supply when the railway was built, and has been mining continuously ever since. The coal-basin worked by this company lies along the Sabinas river, principally on the SW. side. It covers a wide area and has been carefully prospected, but only in a few parts have the beds been found sufficiently thick and regular for economical operation. This Sabinas basin was considered the only one in this field, until, in the Spring of 1899, the Las Esperanzas basin was found by Messrs. J. L. Elliot and E. D. Peters, who were in Mexico looking after some copper-properties. After a further examination by Mr. James T. Gardiner, of New York, the Mexican Coal & Coke Co. was organized in June, and active work was begun on Nov. 5, 1899. The coal-field of Las Esperanzas, situated in the State of Coahuila, about 85 miles SW. of Eagle Pass, Texas, adjoins and runs parallel with the Sabinas basin—an anticlinal separating the two outcrops by about 2 miles. Fig. 1 is a sketch-map of a part of the basin. The coal-formation is in the Upper Cretaceous, and corresponds with the Laramie measures of the United States. The following geological section, taken in Nogales canon, shows the measures between the massive limestones forming the Sierra de la Santa Rosa and the outcrop of the coal: Section. Feet. Limestone,...Unknown. Blue shale,.........110 Shale and sandstone,.. 60 Bed of fossiliferous shale,. 60

Jan 1, 1902

By Y. L. Yao

The solubility limit of oxygeu in a titanionn at 850°C has been determined by magnetic measurements as 12.5 + 0.5 pct (29.0—30,9 at. pct). Also in the susceptibility-co~centmtion curve, there is n distinct but not sharp maximum at 19.0 * 0.5 z~t pet (40.5--42.1 at. pct), which indicates the presence of the 6 phase. The magnetic susceptibilities of the alloys of the titanium-oxygen system were determined byEhrlich in 1939.' is alloys were prepared by sintiring mixtures of titanium and its oxide at high temperatures. On the titanium-rich side, despite the fact that the alloy compositions he measured crossed two phase boundaries, the limited results obtained

Jan 1, 1960

By Tomoyuki Moritani, Atsuyuki Mizuno

A concentration of manganese nodule varies areally from 0 to 30 kg/m2 in the central-eastern deep sea bottom of Central Pacific Basin with depth of 5,600-5,900m, but generally it is low, mostly of the abundance order from 0 to less than some kilograms per square metres through the bottom. A high concentration over about l0kg/m is localized to the northwestern basin, besides "St. 414 Deep Sea Hill" and “GH 76-1 Trought”, and also it is likely related with the substratum of deep sea clay. Nodules are tentatively classified into nine types of Sr, SPr, SEr, Db, Ss/SPs, ISs, IDPs and V, in terms of morphology and surface feature. The types may be related with internal structure, nuculeus, mineral composition, chemical composition, occurrence and areal distribution, and might have resulted from various environmental factors of nodule genesis. The abundance of nodule at each station shows the interesting relation with acoustic records by 3.5KHz and seismic reflection profilings. In both the records, thick transparent layer over about 45m thick yield neither any nor significant amount of nodule. The layer less than 45m relates with abundant nodules up to 30kg/m2, though it yield also very little nodule in some cases. The relation suggests that the formation of nodule most likely could be related with the accumulation rate of the post-middle Eocene sedimentary sequence to some extent and also with other controlling factors. The relation can lead us to the tentative delineation of distribution of nodule deposits in the area. The comparative-consideration with the deposits in GH 74-5 area, just east- ward of the present area, shows the areal peculiarity of nodule genesis in deep sea bottom. The results of chemical analyses will be discussed elsewhere.

Jan 1, 1976

By F. L. Fayers, J. W. Sheldon

It has been a matter of concern to the petroleum industry to determine what effect the capillary term has on saturation profiles, since these profiles determine ultimate economic oil recovery. In their original solution of the non-capillary two-phase flow problem, Buckley and Leverett&apos; showed that solutions of the two-phase flow equations became multiple-valued in saturation. Since it is physically unrealistic for saturation to have more than one value at a given position, Buckley and Leverett resolved this difficulty by introducing a saturation discontinuity or "shock". They evaluated the strength and position of the shock from material balance considerations. Recently Sheldon, Zondek and Cardwell&apos; have demonstrated that the method of characteristics can be used to solve this and related problems. Owing to capillarity it is physically unlikely that saturation shocks occur in an oil reservoir. Buckley and Leverett suggested that the effects of interfacial tensions should be included in the fluid flow equations, if the solutions are to give continuous single-valued saturation distributions. An analogy to this problem is encountered in the theory of wpersonic compressible flow where the introduction of the viscous term eliminates shock behavior. However, the mathematical form of the capillary term in the porous medium fluid flow equations differs from the viscosity term in the Navier-Stokes equation. This paper demons~rates that capillarity does eliminate the triple-valued behavior and indicates the magnitude of capillary and gravity effects on the saturation profile for a variety of systems. DERIVATION OF LAGRANGIAN AND EULERIAN FORMS OF THE DISPLACEMENT EQUATION The equations representing capillary, two-phase flow are given by applying Darcy&apos;s law and a material balance condition for each phase. The familiar Darcy and material balance equations are as follows. ^U*^0......<3, ^^r=°......c« S is the saturation of the water phase, and B the inclination of the porous medium. Pressures in the oil and water phases differ by the capillary pressure associated with the interfacial tensions, P.-P.=pAS)..........(5) where p, is determined experimentally. The porous medium is said to be oil-wet if P, > Po and water-wet if P, < Po. If the fluids are incompressible and the total volumetric flow rate, q, is constant, then v, f v,, = q...........(6) By eliminating P.. /»,, and v, from Eqs. 1, 2, 5 and 6 it follows that It is convenient to normalize the variables in the problem after the manner of Handy and Hadley% so that Eqs. 3 and 7 become where j,, = —, the fractional flow of water; (F, is a capillary pressure normalizing constant.) Substitution of Eq. 9 into Eq. 8 gives In this partial differential equation for an initial value

By AIME AIME

FREDERICK WORTHEN BRADLEY, the newly elected president of the Institute, may be said to be the prototype of the men who have built up the great mining industry of the West. He was born in Nevada County, Cal., on Feb. 21, 1863, and studied mining at the University of California from 1882 to 1884, as a member of the Class of 1885. He was in contact with the mining industry from his earliest years and in his reminiscences which we published last month, he told of meeting Thomas Mein and H. C. Perkins in 1877. Beginning as assayer and roustabout at the Eagle Bird mine, in Nevada county, Mr. Bradley was a deputy mineral surveyor in 1886 and 1887 and superintendent of the Spanish mine from 1885 to 1890. There he made a record of mining gold ore at 65 cents per ton that was not only astounding in that day when modern large scale mining had not yet been developed but is still a mark to shoot at. As a result he was called in 1890 to be assistant manager of the Bunker Hill and Sullivan and was made manager in 1893. In 1897, he was elected to the presidency of the company, a position he still holds. H. C. Perkins and D. O. Mills, the largest stockholders in the Bunker Hill and Sullivan Co. took over the Tacoma smelter in 1898, feeding it with concentrate from the Coeur d&apos;Alene and Douglas Island mines but also doing a gen-era1 smelting business. Mr. Bradley was put in as president of the Smelting company, and held that position until the plant was sold to the American Smelting Securities Co. in 1905.

Jan 1, 1929

By Gilbert E. Doan

IN a technical civilization, that is. one whose major difference from past civilizations is its enormous development of technology, in transportation, communication, labor saving, centralized control, and mass production, it is natural that the most critical problems should be those that arise out of technologic advances; it is natural also that a. man who understands these advances should be chosen as the leader to meet these problems. This was done in the selection of Herbert Hoover as President of the United States. Mr. Hoover was a good, and perhaps a great President. But he was not a great politician and that ensured his defeat when a crisis came.

Jan 1, 1939

By John A. Oberteuffer, James E. Lawver, Ionel Wechsler, Bo Arvidson

INTRODUCTION The demand for aluminum metal and thus for alumina and bauxite (the primary sources), is expected to increase at an annual rate of about 6% through the year 1980. It appears that about 90% of the future aluminum metal requirements could be produced at domestic plants but the production would remain dependent on the use of imported bauxite and alumina. The U.S. dependence on foreign bauxite and alumina is of considerable economic and strategic concern because availability and prices are very sensitive to changes in the political climate in the exporting countries. Dependence of the United States on foreign sources of bauxite closely parallels its dependence on foreign sources of oil, particularly since ten countries, including most of the world&apos;s major bauxite exporting countries, recently have formed the Inter- national Bauxite Association (IBA) for the specific purpose of increasing revenue for the participating countries. Although it is clear that long-term aluminum requirements cannot be fulfilled by domestic resources of bauxite,; the U.S. has an almost unlimited supply of aluminous resources such as Kaolinite (38% Al203), Alunite (37% Al203), Dawsonite (35% A1203), and Anorthosite (29% A1203)

Jan 1, 1976

By R. I. Jaffee, H. P. Nielsen

In recent years much attention has been given to high melting alloy systems. It has been of interest in this respect to investigate the alloys of platinum and tungsten, which were known from the literature to have very high melting points up to about 50 pct tungsten, but about which little had been published on the high-tungsten side of the system. Powder metallurgical methods were used throughout this investigation for the preparation of the alloys, utilizing electrical sintering techniques such as are used for tungsten and molybdenum. In the course of the work it was found desirable to determine fusion temperatures of the alloys, and it was possible from these and other data to draw a tentative constitutional diagram (solidus, mostly) applicable to the high-temperature part of the system. No attempt was made to determine solid solubility vs. temperature data, nor to investigate the lower temperature transformations in the solid state. Data on the microstructure, hardness, and a note on oxidation resistance of the sintered alloys were obtained. Past Work Miillerl determined liquidus temperatures of platinum-rich alloys to 50 pct tungsten, using a radiation method employing a photoelectric cell, and found that the melting points increased progressively from I771 C for platinum to 2350°C for the 50 pct alloy. Microscopic evidence by Miiller that complete solid solutions exist to 50 pct tungsten was not checked by Kremer2 who, according to Vines and Wise,3 found that "although the 8 pct tungsten alloy was a solid solution, the 26 pct tungsten alloy contained a eutectic or an intermediate phase." Hultgren and Jaffee4 using X ray methods found continuous solid solutions to at least 33.6 pct tungsten (35 at. pct) after annealing in vacuum for 6 days at I000 C. Vines and WiseS report work communicated to them by E. C. Rhodes on wrought alloys to 7 pct tungsten, which showed that tungsten hardened platinum extremely rapidly, and was one of the most potent hardeners of the binary additions to platinum. Considerable quantities of 4 pct tungsten platinum wire have been produced for grids in radar tubes and for aircraft spark plugs. Some of the alloy for the latter application is made by sintering, the remainder by smelting and casting. Materials The platinum powder used in this work was kindly supplied by the Research and Development Laboratory of the Owens-Corning Fiberglas Corp., Newark, Ohio. It was prepared from scrap platinum. After dissolving in aqua regia and evaporating almost to dryness, the solution was worked up several times with concentrated HC1. The resultant platinic chloride was diluted considerably, and metallic zinc was added, which precipitated the platinum in a very finely divided form. After dissolving the

Jan 1, 1949