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By Shun-ichi Satoh

A NEW method of treating steel by ammonia has recently been intro¬duced into the metallurgical industry, by means of which piston cylinders of internal combustion engines, shafts and other similar steel products can be made more resistant to wear than formerly. In 1929 the writer' published the historical notes and some experiments upon nitrification. He believes that the corrosion of nitrified steel is a matter of importance and worth studying; and as there have been few studies thereof, he has conducted experiments in this respect. L. Guillet,2 in 1927, reported corrosion tests made on nitrified and cemented steels with acid and salt solutions. In 1928, 0. Hengstenberg3 reported the high resistance of nitrified steel to water vapor and air. V. 0. Homerberg4 stated that nitrified steel has high resistance to water, air and salt solution; and G. Hagg5 studied nitrified layers of iron by means of the X-ray. Though F. Hanaman6 in 1913, measured the single potential difference of steel treated with ammonia at above 650° C., no one, it seems, has ever measured the single potential difference of the so-called nitrified steels having extraordinary hardness. The writer measured the single potential differences of nitrified special steels in various solutions with the object of studying the corrosion problem and, if possible, of knowing whether any new physical property would be caused by nitrification.

Jan 1, 1932

By G. C. Rauch, T. H. Courtney, J. Wulff

The superconducting behavior of Nb-Ti alloys containing 40 and higher wt pct of Nb and variable oxygen content was studied as a function of thermomechanical processing. Critical current density (Jc) us applied transverse magnetic field (H) data were obtained for 0.010 in. diam wires at 4.2° Kin steady fields up to 120 kOe. The precipitate responsible for increase in Jc in each of the alloys studied was related to niobium and oxygen content. In alloys containing 40 to 60 wt pct Nb with less than about 1600 ppm of oxygen, w precipitation in the range 350° to 450°C appears to be responsible for the maximum value of Jc observed. In alloys of higher oxygen content (-2500 ppm), the oxygen-enriched a phase which precipitates in the temperature range 450° to 550°C is a more effective fluxoid pinner. Maximum Jc in low oxygen (350 ppm) 80 wt pct Nb alloys was achieved by 600°C aging heat treatments. Measurements of resistive critical field also reflect the changes in composition accompanying precipitation in these alloys. It is well known that the superconducting critical current density, Jc, of solid solution superconducting alloys can be increased by precipitation heat treatments.1-4 The precipitate, to serve as an effective superconzlucting fluxoid pinner and increase Jc, must be of proper size and spacing.' Its electronic properties must also be different from those of the matrix.6 As in age-hardenable systems, optimum temperature and time of aging are dictated by the composition and history of the particular solid-solution alloy under consideration. The alloy diagram of Ti-Nb7-9 shown in Fig. 1 is typical of ß-stabilized Ti alloys. Precipitation to achieve high Jc in Ti-Nb and Ti-Ta alloys is usually carried out in what is believed to be a two-phase a + ß region.1,2,4,10 Previous work on Ti-Nb4,11 and on other ß-stabilized systems such as Ti-V, Ti-Mo,12-14 has shown, however, that the first precipitate to appear is not necessarily (Y. Under specific conditions the meta-stable w phase is precipitated instead. A further complication arises in such alloys from the strong influence of contained oxygen on the phase stability and on the kinetics of precipitation.15,16 The superconducting critical current density of Nb-Ti alloy containing less than 36 wt pct Nb has been studied by Vetrano and Boom1 and Kramer and Rhodes.4 The most effective aging temperature was found to be about 425°C; fluxoid pinning was attributed to the precipita- tion of a by Vetrano and Boom and of w by Kramer and Rhodes. Although the latter workers used recrystal-lized material and the former cold-worked, studies carried out in our laboratory lead us to believe that the type of precipitate responsible for increased Jc is unaffected by prior cold-work.17 That other types of precipitates may also be effective, especially in higher oxygen-containing alloys, has been demonstrated by Reuter, et al.2 in this laboratory with the aid of electron microscopy. Reuter et al. found that at an aging temperature of 600°C, fee-TiO is precipitated, resulting in high values of Jc. Even higher values of Jc were observed after heat treatment at 500°C, but the precipitate could not be indexed as fee-TiO. Whether the precipitate was oxygen-rich w or a could not be clearly distinguished. The work nevertheless indicates that appreciable amounts of oxygen alter the nature of the phases precipitated at different temperatures, at least in alloys containing more than 36 wt pct Nb. Since such compositions are more readily worked into suitable wire than lesser niobium content alloys, it was decided to study the response to aging of the alloy compositions reported in the present paper with the hope of clarifying the effect of composition on the precipitation processes responsible for high values of Jc. I. EXPERIMENTAL Nb-Ti alloys containing 40, 50, 60, and 80 wt pct Nb were prepared by are-melting 35 g ingots of iodide crystal bar titanium and electron-beam melted niobium.

Jan 1, 1969

THE Leadville tunnel, a Bureau of Mines project designed to unseal Colorado's rich but flooded lead, zinc, and manganese mines, is still being advanced, although the work is encountering severe difficulties. Work on the tunnel, begun in 1943, was dropped for lack of funds in 1945, and started again last September. The tunnel is one of the nation's toughest mining jobs. Fifty firms and individuals, who were asked to bid on the job of continuing be- yond the 6600-ft mark, didn't even answer. The work was finally taken over by the Utah Construction Co. of Salt Lake City. Since last September, the face has been moved 1000 ft closer to the flooded Leadville district mines, and to the hoped-for length of 17.300 ft. Some apparent success has already been noted, with an unusual decline in the water level in some major mine shafts reported this winter.

Jan 5, 1951

By A. A. Venghiattis

A rational approach to the selection of the appropriate perforator to use in each specific zone of an oil well is presented. The criteria presently in use for this choice bear little resemblance with actual down-hole condilions. These environmental conditions affect the elastic properties of rocks. One of these elastic properties, acoustic velocity, is suggested as the leading parameter to adopt for the choice of a perforator because, being currently measured in the natural location of the formation, it takes into account all of the effects of compaction, saturation, temperature, etc., which are overlooked in the laboratory. Equations and curves in relation with this suggestion are given to allow the prediction of the depth of perforation of bullets and shaped charges when an acoustic log has been run in the zone to be perforated. INTRODUCTION When an oil company has to decide on the perforator to choose for a completion job, I wonder if it is really understood that, to date, there is no rational way of selecting the right perforator on the basis of what it will do down-hole. This situation stems from the fact that the many varieties of existing perforators, bullets or shaped charges, are promoted on the basis of their performance in the laboratory, but very little is said on how this performance will be affected by subsurface conditions such as the combination of high overburden pressure and high temperature, for example. The purpose of this paper is to show the limitations of the existing ways of evaluating the performance of perforators, to show that performances obtained in laboratories cannot be extended to down-hole conditions because the elastic properties of rocks are affected by these conditions and, finally, to suggest and justify the use of the acoustic velocity of rocks, as the parameter to utilize for the anticipation of the performance of a perforator in true down-hole environment. EVALUATING THE PERFORMANCE OF A PERFORATOR It is natural, of course, to judge the performance of a perforator from the size of the hole it makes in a predetermined target. Considering that the ultimate target for an oilwell perforator is the oil-bearing formation preceded in most cases by a layer of cement and by the wall of a steel casing, the difficulties begin with the choice of an adequate experimental target material. For obvious reasons of convenience, the first choice that came to the mind of perforator designers was mild steel. This is a reasonable choice for the comparison of two perforators in first approximation. Mild steel is commercially available in a rather consistent state and quality, and is comparatively inexpensive. The trouble with mild steel is that it represents a yardstick very much contracted; minute variations in depth of penetration or hole diameter and shape may be significant though difficult to measure. The penetration of projectiles in steel being a function of the Brinell hardness of the steel (Gabeaud, O'Neill, Grun-wood, Poboril, et al), it is often difficult to decide whether to attribute a small difference in penetration to a variation on the target hardness or to an actual variation on the efficiency of the projectile. Another target material which has been widely used for testing the efficiency of bullets or shaped charges in an effort to represent a formation—a mineral target as opposed to an all-steel target—is cement cast in steel containers. This type of target, although offering a larger scale for measuring penetrations, proved so unreliable because of its poor repeatability that it had to be abandoned by most designers. The drawbacks of these target materials, and particularly their complete lack of similarity with an oil-bearing formation, became so evident that a more realistic target arrangement was sought until a tacit agreement was reached between customers and designers of oilwell perforators on a testing target of the type shown on Fig. 1. This became almost a necessity about seven years ago because of the introduction of a new parameter in the evaluation of the efficiency of a perforator, the well flow index (WFI). The WFI is the ratio (under predetermined and constant conditions of ambiance, pressure and temperature) of the permeability to a ceitain grade of kerosene of the target core (usually Berea sandstone) after verforation. to its vermeabilitv before perforation. The value of this index ;or the present state if the perforation technique varies from 0 to 2.5, the good perforators presently available rating somewhere around 2.0 and the poor ones around 0.8, There is no doubt that, to date, the WFI type of test is by far the most significant one for comparing perforators. It is obvious that a demonstration of a perforator

By T. Sterry Hunt

SINCE: the date of my previous paper on this subject, presented at the Cincinnati Meeting, February, 1881, and published in our Transactions, vol. xii., p. 459, I have had occasion to revisit the Canadian apatite region, and to collect further data concerning its geognosy, which I hope to describe at a future time. At present, I shall put on record a few brief observations concerning the more recent operations in apatite-mining in the Lievre district, to the north of the Ottawa River, where the mines are as yet confined to a small area in the townships of Buckingham, Portland, Templeton, and Darry; the earlier workings having been along the Rideau Canal, to the south of the Ottawa. The large mining operations lately undertaken in the Lièvre district show that the crystalline phosphate of lime or apatite belongs to lodes of great size, which traverse the ancient gneiss of the region. These lodes include a granitoid feldspathic rock, and a pyroxene rock, with large masses of quartz, of carbonate of lime, of pyrites, and of apatite. All of these often show a banded structure, riot unlike that of the gneiss, to which they- are evidently posterior, arid of which they

Jan 1, 1886

By AIME AIME

EVERETTE LEE DEGOLYER, past President of the Institute and Anthony F. Lucas Medalist, was presented with the John Fritz Medal at a dinner at the Wal-dorf-Astoria Hotel in New York, Jan. 14. Dr. DeGolyer is the third representative of the Institute in recent years to receive the John Fritz Medal which is awarded jointly by the four Founder Engineering Societies through a board composed of sixteen past presidents. In 1938 Paul D. Merica was given the award "for important contributions to the development of alloys for industrial uses" and in 1933 the distinction was given to D. C. Jackling "for notable industrial achievement in initiating mass production of copper from low-grade ores through application of engineering principles."

Jan 1, 1942

By V. R. Garfias, R. V. Whetzel, J. W. Ristori

Since the entry of the United States into global war, virtually all data and information necessary for compiling figures on world petroleum consumption have become unavailable. This situation undoubtedly will continue until the world petroleum industry can return to a peacetime basis. During the past 10 years, the authors, by publishing annual estimates of .world consumption, have attempted to emphasize the importance of a yearly world-wide survey of petroleum supply and demand. It is beconling more and more evident that statistics for the United States alone can no longer give a comprehensive idea of the state of the petroleum industry, even within the United States itself. Therefore, when conditions in the industry again become normal, it is the hope of the authors that those bureaus equipped to do so will carry forward the study of petroleum supply and demand on a world-wide basis. Enough data and information are available, however, to attempt a rough estimate of world output of crude petroleum and petroleum substitutes for 1942, which to some extent may reflect the trend of world consumption. This estimate by countries, as compared with the output in 1941, is shown in Table I. The world production of crude petroleum and petroleum substitutes for 1942 is estimated at 2,208,000,000 bbl., or a decrease of 171,000,000 bbl. under 1941. Crude production is believed to have decreased by about 200,000,000 bbl., (about 9 per cent); while petroleum substitutes increased by 28,500,000 bbl., (nearly 20 per cent). The decline of crude output in the United States is estimated at 19,000,000 bb1.—less than 2 per cent; while that in foreign countries is estimated at 180,000,000 bbl., or more than 20 per cent. The marked decline abroad is due largely to losses in Venezuela and Colombia, where the lack of ocean transportation became the controlling factor, and in the East Indies and Burma, where military invasion brought about the destruction of the fields. The production of petroleum substitutes in 1942 apparently reached a new high figure of 7.5 per cent of the total world petroleum output. The important features of petroleum production outside of the United States are the changes that have taken place during the year in the supply of the Axis countries. In Japan the output for 1941 was estimated at 8,800,000 bbl., 5,500,000 of which were petroleum substitutes. It is believed that the output of synthetic oils during 1942 substantially increased, raising the total interior production of Japan to nearly 10,-ooo,ooo bbl. Also, during 1942 Japanese armed forces gained possession of oil fields having a normal peacetime output of about 78,000,000 bbl. per year. The production of these areas for 1942 is estimated at some 23,000,000 bbl., which indicates that Japan is now getting at least 33,000,000 bbl. a year, which exceeds by 8,000,000 bbl. Its

Jan 1, 1943

By J. W. Ristori, V. R. Garfias, R. V. Whetzel

Since the entry of the United States into global war, virtually all data and information necessary for compiling figures on world petroleum consumption have become unavailable. This situation undoubtedly will continue until the world petroleum industry can return to a peacetime basis. During the past 10 years, the authors, by publishing annual estimates of .world consumption, have attempted to emphasize the importance of a yearly world-wide survey of petroleum supply and demand. It is beconling more and more evident that statistics for the United States alone can no longer give a comprehensive idea of the state of the petroleum industry, even within the United States itself. Therefore, when conditions in the industry again become normal, it is the hope of the authors that those bureaus equipped to do so will carry forward the study of petroleum supply and demand on a world-wide basis. Enough data and information are available, however, to attempt a rough estimate of world output of crude petroleum and petroleum substitutes for 1942, which to some extent may reflect the trend of world consumption. This estimate by countries, as compared with the output in 1941, is shown in Table I. The world production of crude petroleum and petroleum substitutes for 1942 is estimated at 2,208,000,000 bbl., or a decrease of 171,000,000 bbl. under 1941. Crude production is believed to have decreased by about 200,000,000 bbl., (about 9 per cent); while petroleum substitutes increased by 28,500,000 bbl., (nearly 20 per cent). The decline of crude output in the United States is estimated at 19,000,000 bb1.—less than 2 per cent; while that in foreign countries is estimated at 180,000,000 bbl., or more than 20 per cent. The marked decline abroad is due largely to losses in Venezuela and Colombia, where the lack of ocean transportation became the controlling factor, and in the East Indies and Burma, where military invasion brought about the destruction of the fields. The production of petroleum substitutes in 1942 apparently reached a new high figure of 7.5 per cent of the total world petroleum output. The important features of petroleum production outside of the United States are the changes that have taken place during the year in the supply of the Axis countries. In Japan the output for 1941 was estimated at 8,800,000 bbl., 5,500,000 of which were petroleum substitutes. It is believed that the output of synthetic oils during 1942 substantially increased, raising the total interior production of Japan to nearly 10,-ooo,ooo bbl. Also, during 1942 Japanese armed forces gained possession of oil fields having a normal peacetime output of about 78,000,000 bbl. per year. The production of these areas for 1942 is estimated at some 23,000,000 bbl., which indicates that Japan is now getting at least 33,000,000 bbl. a year, which exceeds by 8,000,000 bbl. Its

Jan 1, 1943

By Walter Miller

Crude oil stocks were some 10,000,000 bbl higher on June I, 1947, than at any time during 1946 but the extremely heavy refinery runs the last half of 1947 cut crude inventories to approximately the 1946 closing level of 225,000,000 bbl. Many refiners were seriously short of crude oil during the year. This shortage was reflected in numerous advances in the posted price of crude, justified in part as an incentive for more production but more generally due to competitive bidding. Some purchasers of crude, endeavoring to keep their plants running, resorted to the payment, either directly or indirectly, of premiums above the posted price. Another common practice employed by some suppliers of crude oil was to demand refined products in exchange or trade for their raw material. The refined products picture has darkened in spite of record throughputs. Stocks of gasoline and light and heavy fuel oils were uncomfortably low at the beginning of the year and were in general still lower at the close. The rationing of some products, principally gasoline, to dealers and stations? initiated during the year, gained momentum as stocks continued to diminish. The emphasis placed by the manufacturers of oil-burning equipment on the convenience and economy of heating with oil, together with the tight situation in coal, has developed a tremendous demand for burning oils. Consumption of liquefied petroleum gas for domestic and household fuel had more than doubled in 1946 over 1943, and the demand seems to be limited only by the ability of the equipment builders to furnish necessary storage. transportation, and burning equipment. The supply situation is likely to become more acute in 1948. Demand for petroleum products is being pushed to new heights not only by the unprecedented domestic market but by a sudden and drastic upswing in estimates of military and governmental requirements. Additionally, oil exports are running far below the volume requested, amounting to less than forty percent in a recent quarter, and export licenses are reportedly being approved on the basis of urgent need *only. AX recent White House release sees little likelihood that estimated requirements of the sixteen nations participating in the proposed Marshall Plan can be met in full over its projected life—1948 to 1951. Present demand dictates maintenance of refinery operations at the highest possible level and the Bureau of Mines has forecast daily average crude runs in 1948 of 5,265,000 bbl. The Economics Advisory Committee of the Interstate Oil Compact Commission recently estimated the 1948 demand for petroleum products at nearly 6 pct above 1947. They further estimate daily average crude runs of 5,375,000 bbl in 1948, some 2 pct higher than forecast by the Bureau of Mines. Projected demand exceeds supply to the extent that Capitol Hill is reportedly investigating ways of enabling oil companies to act in concert without danger of antitrust prosecution, such as elimination of crosshauls, pooling of products, and lowering of octane.

Jan 1, 1948

By Walter Miller

Crude oil stocks were some 10,000,000 bbl higher on June I, 1947, than at any time during 1946 but the extremely heavy refinery runs the last half of 1947 cut crude inventories to approximately the 1946 closing level of 225,000,000 bbl. Many refiners were seriously short of crude oil during the year. This shortage was reflected in numerous advances in the posted price of crude, justified in part as an incentive for more production but more generally due to competitive bidding. Some purchasers of crude, endeavoring to keep their plants running, resorted to the payment, either directly or indirectly, of premiums above the posted price. Another common practice employed by some suppliers of crude oil was to demand refined products in exchange or trade for their raw material. The refined products picture has darkened in spite of record throughputs. Stocks of gasoline and light and heavy fuel oils were uncomfortably low at the beginning of the year and were in general still lower at the close. The rationing of some products, principally gasoline, to dealers and stations? initiated during the year, gained momentum as stocks continued to diminish. The emphasis placed by the manufacturers of oil-burning equipment on the convenience and economy of heating with oil, together with the tight situation in coal, has developed a tremendous demand for burning oils. Consumption of liquefied petroleum gas for domestic and household fuel had more than doubled in 1946 over 1943, and the demand seems to be limited only by the ability of the equipment builders to furnish necessary storage. transportation, and burning equipment. The supply situation is likely to become more acute in 1948. Demand for petroleum products is being pushed to new heights not only by the unprecedented domestic market but by a sudden and drastic upswing in estimates of military and governmental requirements. Additionally, oil exports are running far below the volume requested, amounting to less than forty percent in a recent quarter, and export licenses are reportedly being approved on the basis of urgent need *only. AX recent White House release sees little likelihood that estimated requirements of the sixteen nations participating in the proposed Marshall Plan can be met in full over its projected life—1948 to 1951. Present demand dictates maintenance of refinery operations at the highest possible level and the Bureau of Mines has forecast daily average crude runs in 1948 of 5,265,000 bbl. The Economics Advisory Committee of the Interstate Oil Compact Commission recently estimated the 1948 demand for petroleum products at nearly 6 pct above 1947. They further estimate daily average crude runs of 5,375,000 bbl in 1948, some 2 pct higher than forecast by the Bureau of Mines. Projected demand exceeds supply to the extent that Capitol Hill is reportedly investigating ways of enabling oil companies to act in concert without danger of antitrust prosecution, such as elimination of crosshauls, pooling of products, and lowering of octane.

Jan 1, 1948

By Ralph M. Roosevelt

IN AS MUCH as our Institute, by tradition, never adopts any official view of matters upon which difference of opinion exists, it may be taken for granted that the duty of its Production Control Committee does' not embrace the formulation of any general policy on that much-discussed subject. During the first years of its existence the Committee confined its activities to making arrangements for an annual general session at which the broader aspects of the general problem were discussed by men both within and outside the mineral industry. These general sessions, although interesting, did not indicate any definite path of progress, so during the last year the Committee has held a number of luncheon meetings at which the members might discuss in detail problems existing in the specific industries with which they are most closely acquainted, in the hope that discussions dealing with conditions rather than theories might result in the bringing to light of some general truths. Most of these truths have been fairly obvious from the beginning but they are of such basic importance that a periodic restatement of them seems worth while,

Jan 1, 1932

By Stewart Murray, Philip Klapwijk

INTRODUCTION Forecasting commodity markets is like predicting winners in a horse race: to get the answers right, one needs both luck and judgement. Commodity analysts bear some resemblance to racing tipsters as they try to convince interested parties that they have an inside track on which metal is going to win the great minerals race of the 1990s. Commodity analysts share some features with the gentlemen of the turf: • They influence other people in how to spend risk capital, • They don't put their own money at risk, and • If their tips consistently fail to deliver, then they end up looking elsewhere for employment. In order to find winners we need to know about the kind of race we are in and the strengths and weaknesses of all the runners. Miners are not interested in a five furlong sprint: their race is a long distance affair -- after all, the lead-times between discovery and start-up generally approach a decade for mines that will provide the staying power which leaders require in this industry. We need to look at the environment in which our commodities will be competing: in racing parlance, the going. Our equivalent is the economic background: just as some horses are at a relative advantage when the going is soft, so some commodities will do better than others if economic growth is sluggish. If we are going to pick the winners for the late 1990s, and as an industry, make the right investment decisions, nothing is more important than being able to forecast (with at least a semblance of accuracy) how and where the world's economy is going to develop in the next decade. In addressing the question of whether minerals are going to be leaders in the 1990s, this paper considers the idea that it will increasingly be the world outside the industrialised OECD that will provide the incremental growth in demand for mineral products. Economic growth in the Developing World is fundamentally different from that in the OECD, and the pattern of demand for materials in relation to economic output is much more favourable than in the OECD. If we are to forecast the future, we need to be able to understand the past, both in the boom times of the so called Golden Sixties and in the lean years that followed them. This should help us to decide whether the future is going to be like one or other of these extremes or, on the other hand, a return to normality. Having forecast the going, we can look at individual competitors. • Which are best placed to take advantage of the economic, social and industrial trends that we can now dimly foresee? • Which can resist the continued onslaught of the new materials and technologies? • Which of them will best weather the economic storms (assuming that recessions have not yet been abolished)? If we can provide answers to these questions, we will be well on our way to picking winners, i.e., the metals and minerals that will reward their owners with growing demand, steady (and high) prices leading to profits beyond the dreams of avarice.

Jan 1, 1990

BRANCH COUNCILS MINING BRANCH R M Foose, Chairman (Industrial Minerals) Carroll A Garner (Coal) J V Beall, Eastern Secretary A B Cunmins (Industrial Minerals) R E O'Brien, Western Secretary E D Gardner (Mining, Geology, and Geophysics) Carroll F Hardy (Coal) Philip J Shenon (Mining, Geology, and Geophysics) R E Byler (Minerals Beneficiation) A C. Callen (Mineral Industry Education) Grover J Bolt (Minerals Beneficiation) R J Lund (Mineral Economics)

Jan 1, 1951

By George A. Hill

WE of the oil industry, devoted to freedom of initiative, free competitive enter- prise, and free American institutions, applaud, with one voice, affirmation by the President of the national will and purpose to preserve and to protect, against all aggressors, "our American way of life with our individual and national freedom." We subscribe utterly and completely to this guiding declaration and seek its further definition as applied to the oil industry. Fortunately for all, the policy of the Government, after adequate study and deliberation, has been given precise definition. The National Defense Advisory Commission, with its patriotic, highly qualified, and distinguished personnel, has unanimously agreed to and adopted twelve general principles governing national defense contracts and also fair labor standard requirements. The President of the

Jan 1, 1940

By H. Wilhelm, E. L. Davis, W. A. Clark

MATHEMATICAL formulas for the analysis of the behavior of producing oil wells can be devised which will be correct for the assumed conditions. However, in an oil zone, variables always exist which are unknown, or to which. it is impractical to assign mathematical values. It seems apparent that one should reason back from observed facts to an analysis of causes, rather than start with a hypothetical reservoir with assumed properties and attempt to explain observed phenomena. In this paper we hope to throw some additional light on factors influencing production, especially edgewater behavior. OIL and gas are contained in reservoirs of either the sealed type or the edgewater type. In the former all the recoverable oil is produced by gas expansion only. In this type of reservoir, edgewater is not effective. This may be because of faulting or overlapping strata, or more often, probably, the edgewater pressure is ineffec¬tive on account of resistance or lack of head.

Jan 1, 1933

By A. J. Turk, R. G. Dalbke

An increasing number of water pollution control systems are certain to be installed by many industries in the future because of new federal, state and local government regulations, and because of the rising general concern about the deterioration of our water resources. Extensive engineering, some of it based on methods not yet developed, will be required if these new systems are to provide optimum pollution control. Among the primary design factors to be considered are capital cost, operating cost, and present and future regulatory requirements. Establishing A Survey and Test Program To produce a final plant effluent meeting regulatory agency requirements, engineers must have background data that are accurate and representative of present and future plant operation. Operating and plant engineering departments often have available much information, including plant water quantitative and qualitative requirements, both present and future, that can be helpful in the preparation of designs of pollution control systems.

Jan 5, 1968

By R. H. Jamison

A relatively new haulage system is described. Employed by the Delmant Fuel Co.. the "Full Dimension" system provides an uninterrupted flow of coal from a loader or continuous miner at the face to the main line transportation system. This system is said to provide a higher percentage of recovery as well as additional safety and production. Delmont Fuel Co. is employing a comparatively new system of transportation known as a Full Dimension system. Cne of these systems has been in operation for a year at the company's 10-B Mine as a part of a conventional section. A second was installed at the No. 10 mine in late 1960 to handle the production of a Colmol in a pillar section. SYSTEM COMPONENTS A Full Dimension system is a haulage system that provides an uninterrupted flow of coal from a loader or continuous miner at the face to the main line transportation system. The equipment required for this system consists of a series of interconnected chain conveyors that are mobile and articulated. They will retract or extend a sufficient distance for the development of a five-entry system; or, in the Colmol pillar section, it provides reach of 210 ft in all directions from the section belt. The components of this system are: l)One 160-ft chain line placed in tandem with the belt conveyor. It has a self-propelled drive, is 20 in. wide and 9 in. deep. Moving this conveyor requires the assistance of a loading machine or cutting machine. 2) One 40-ft piggyback that discharges along the entire length of the 160 ft chain conveyor. 3) A mobile bridge carrier, which is a self-propelled conveyor with four wheel steer and four wheel drive, twenty-eight feet long, it delivers coal to the receiving end of the piggyback. Axles steer individually making possible almost lateral movement. 4) Another 40-ft piggyback, duplicate of item 2 that delivers coal along the entire length of item 3 (mobile bridge carrier). 5) A second mobile bridge carrier, similar to the first, which deliver coal to the piggyback (item 4). 6) A third 40-ft piggyback, duplicate of items 2 and 4. This pig is attached to the loading machine and delivers its coal along the length of the second mobile bridge conveyor. Since the original preparation of this paper, the Delmot Fuel Co. has been able to eliminate the 160-ft chain conveyor. This was accomplished by connecting the outby piggyback directly to a loading machine with an extended boom. The loading machine loads directly onto the belt. This change has resulted in a substantial reduction in moving time and greatly increased flexability. A single trailing cable powers the entire string of equipment. It is attached to the side of the equipment in such a way as to keep it off the ground and afford maximum protection. The tramming rate of this equipment is 90 fpm. The conveyor capacity in a conventional section at Delmont's mines is 7.5 tpm and in the Colmol section is 5.5 tpm. This regulation is a simple function of conveyor speed. To visualize operation of this equipment, it would be well for me to touch briefly on local conditions in the Upper Freeport seam in which we mine. (Also, see the photographs of some of the equipment in use.) DELMONT'S TOPOGRAPHY The Delmont Fuel Co. operates two mines in this seam in Westmoreland County, Pa. The No. 10 mine, which was opened in about 1912, is now almost worked out. Depending on economics in the industry, it has a life of two to four years on a declining production basis. A year ago a new drift mine was opened which is called No. 10-B. It is about two miles from the cleaning plant and is connected thereto by an overland belt conveyor. The new mine is being developed at a rate calculated to take up the slack as the old mine plays out. The Upper Freeport seam averages 4.2 ft in thickness in the area of the Delmont mines. It carries 4 in. of boney coal at the top of the seam and a middle man of from 2 to 4 in. We mine just above a 1-in. slate parting which has 4 to 6 in. of highly laminated coal beneath it. This material normally makes a very firm bottom. The roof varies from dark shale to sand rock and 36-in. bolts are placed on 4-ft centers for roof support. All working places are driven 20 ft wide on development and 25 ft wide on retreat. Selection of mobile chain conveyor equipment when it became available, was a very natural move for Delmont Fuel to make, because chain conveyors and piggybacks had been in use at the company's mines for about 12 years. Grades in the new mine

Jan 1, 1961

By W. L. Crentz, E. E. Donath, D. Doherty

IN 1948, the United States used nearly six million barrels of petroleum products every day. Although substitution of synthetic fuels for the natural petroleum product is not here yet, large quantities of special-purpose coal will be required in ever-increasing volume as the domestic production of oil from other sources fails to meet demand and the production of synthetic fuels begins. Petroleum economists do not agree as to when the shortages of domestic oil will appear; but the increasing per capita consumption of oil, coupled with a constantly growing population drawing on a potential domestic oil supply estimated to be 85 billion barrels, sooner or later will result in demand exceeding domestic supply. When this situation comes about, the excess demand will be either eliminated by curtailment of consumption or the demand met by increasing importation of foreign oil or by the production of synthetic fuels. The first recourse would definitely retard the heretofore unbroken rise in American living standards, while dependence upon a foreign oil supply during a war or other emergency would be dangerous. On the other hand, the enormous coal reserves in the United States, plus sizable deposits of oil shale, indicate adequate means of augmenting a diminishing domestic oil supply. Some idea of the impact of an expanding synthetic liquid fuels program on the coal-mining industry may be gathered when it is considered that to supply just half of our present-day petroleum needs synthetically from coal would increase the coal output by about 500 million tons annually, using an 11,900 Btu bituminous coal as the plant feed. If either a subbituminous coal or lignite were used, the quantity required would be materially increased. Synthetic Fuel Processes: The principal synthetic fuel processes using coal as a raw material are the Bergius, or coal-hydrogenation process, and the Fischer-Tropsch, or gas-synthesis process. These two processes not only produce different end products, but the preparation of the coal used in each presents its own individual problem to the coal-preparation engineer. The hydrogenation process brings together a mixture of dry, finely powdered coal, catalyst, and heavy oil to form a paste. Addition of hydrogen under rather high pressure and temperature conditions brings about transformation of the coal to a liquid product, from which a high-grade gasoline and other motor fuels may be obtained. The Fischer-Tropsch process requires the production of synthesis gas, a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. At the Bureau of Mines Louisiana, Mo., demonstration plant, this gas is being made by reacting dried pulverized coal with carefully controlled volumes of oxygen and superheated steam. After purification and in the presence of the proper catalyst and suitable conditions of pressure and temperature, the hydrogen and carbon monoxide components of the synthesis gas react to form motor fuel. The two processes are not competitive but rather com-

Jan 1, 1951

By E. E. Donath, W. L. Crentz, D. Doherty

IN 1948, the United States used nearly six million barrels of petroleum products every day. Although substitution of synthetic fuels for the natural petroleum product is not here yet, large quantities of special-purpose coal will be required in ever-increasing volume as the domestic production of oil from other sources fails to meet demand and the production of synthetic fuels begins. Petroleum economists do not agree as to when the shortages of domestic oil will appear; but the increasing per capita consumption of oil, coupled with a constantly growing population drawing on a potential domestic oil supply estimated to be 85 billion barrels, sooner or later will result in demand exceeding domestic supply. When this situation comes about, the excess demand will be either eliminated by curtailment of consumption or the demand met by increasing importation of foreign oil or by the production of synthetic fuels. The first recourse would definitely retard the heretofore unbroken rise in American living standards, while dependence upon a foreign oil supply during a war or other emergency would be dangerous. On the other hand, the enormous coal reserves in the United States, plus sizable deposits of oil shale, indicate adequate means of augmenting a diminishing domestic oil supply. Some idea of the impact of an expanding synthetic liquid fuels program on the coal-mining industry may be gathered when it is considered that to supply just half of our present-day petroleum needs synthetically from coal would increase the coal output by about 500 million tons annually, using an 11,900 Btu bituminous coal as the plant feed. If either a subbituminous coal or lignite were used, the quantity required would be materially increased. Synthetic Fuel Processes: The principal synthetic fuel processes using coal as a raw material are the Bergius, or coal-hydrogenation process, and the Fischer-Tropsch, or gas-synthesis process. These two processes not only produce different end products, but the preparation of the coal used in each presents its own individual problem to the coal-preparation engineer. The hydrogenation process brings together a mixture of dry, finely powdered coal, catalyst, and heavy oil to form a paste. Addition of hydrogen under rather high pressure and temperature conditions brings about transformation of the coal to a liquid product, from which a high-grade gasoline and other motor fuels may be obtained. The Fischer-Tropsch process requires the production of synthesis gas, a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. At the Bureau of Mines Louisiana, Mo., demonstration plant, this gas is being made by reacting dried pulverized coal with carefully controlled volumes of oxygen and superheated steam. After purification and in the presence of the proper catalyst and suitable conditions of pressure and temperature, the hydrogen and carbon monoxide components of the synthesis gas react to form motor fuel. The two processes are not competitive but rather com-

Jan 1, 1951

By Y. C. Liu, W. R. Hibbard

Based on pole figure data and microstructural observations, the re-crystallization orientation found in a copper strip previously cold-rolled 99.5 pct from a single crystal with an initial (110) [112] orientation may be described as: a 30° rotation, clockwise and counterclockwise, about octahedral poles of the cold-rolled texture such that all four poles function at a low annealing temperature (400°C) and only three of them function at high temperatures (500' to 1050°C). The relative intensity of deformation stresses on various slip planes can be correlated with the choice of poles affecting the rotations found in the recrystallized orientations. ROTATIONAL reorientation about the poles of densely packed crystallographic planes is an important characteristic of secondary recrystallization" in face-centered cubic metals. Some evidence has also been interpreted to show that such a rotational relationship also exists in the primary recrys-tallization process." In an investigation of the crystallographic relationships in the recrystallization process, several aspects of the experimental procedure should be considered. With cold-rolled poly-crystalline metal as the initial material, pole figure analysis leaves many ambiguities as to whether or not simple indices can be assigned to adequately represent its orientation. The rolling texture does not consist of a single texture. Minor deformation textures are usually present. In all cases, twin textures are present. The presence of both minor and twin deformation textures influences the recrystallization texture. In order to study the recrystallization mechanism, a more precise knowledge of the history of the material before recrystallization is necessary. Tensile deformation of a single crystal usually produces residual stresses which are concentrated at slip bands. Since the exact nature and orientation of these potential nuclei sites cannot be experimentally evaluated, the tensile deformation of a single crystal was not considered adequate. From the work done by Barrett and Steadman6 n copper, it appeared that cold rolling of a single-crystal specimen with an initial (110) [112] orientation would yield a specimen which fulfills the conditions required for the present investigation, namely a highly preferred single rolling texture with relatively homogeneous stress distribution. By investigating the recrystallization texture of this material, additional details of reorientation during recrystallization might be obtained. The purpose of this paper is to describe such an investigation. Experimental Procedure Copper used in the present investigation was cathode sheet with a purity of 99.94 to 99.97 pct. A copper single-crystal specimen, 1.15x0.8720x0.5322 in. (thickness) was cut from a cylindrical crystal which was grown in a Bridgman furnace.' The cutting was accomplished on a horizontal milling machine operated at a very slow speed to obtain a (110) plane in the rolling plane and a [112] direction in the rolling direction. The disturbed surface was removed by electrolytic polishing in dilute orthophos-phoric acid (H3PO4) with a specific gravity of 1.14, and a current density of about 1 to 2 amp per sq cm. A 3-min polishing was needed to eliminate the disturbed surface causing Debye-Scherrer rings and a 45-min polish produced a surface which yielded sharp rounded Laue spots. It was estimated that about 1/16 in. of metal was removed from the original cut surface. The final orientation of this specimen before rolling was about 2" from the (110) plane in the rolling plane with a [112] direction aligned in the rolling direction. It is possible that a small amount of strain was still present in the cube despite the fact that the Laue spots seemed very sharp. It is doubtful, however, that this would be an important factor after a subsequent rolling reduction of 99.5 pct. This copper specimen was rolled on a laboratory rolling mill with two highly polished rolls 37/8 in. in diam in the following manner: 0.010 in. per pass to 50 pct reduction, 0.005 in. to 70 pct, 0.002 in. to 85 pct and, finally, 0.001 in. per pass to a 99.5 pct reduction. Specimens, about 1 in. sq with the rolling edges intact, were cut from the rolled strip by the electrolytic method previously described, after the strip

Jan 1, 1954