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By Marcus A. Grossman

THE institute has established this lectureship to honor the memory of a great American metallurgist, one whose fame has continued long after his passing. As one scientist recently stated it," All metallurgical texts gradually become outdated and outmoded, except those of the great Henry Marion Howe." It seems fitting, then, that, once every year, we should review, in his honor, some aspects of the science in which he was such a distinguished leader, and also discuss any new data that may help to clarify our concepts. It is my privilege, for which indeed I express the deepest appreciation to this Institute, to offer for consideration a few thoughts on the toughness and fracture of hardened steels. Before proceeding to the data, I wish to express my great indebtedness to many associates whose stimulating discussions, generous contributions of data and cooperation in experiments are gratefully acknowledged. (But I wish to absolve them of any blame that may arise from the way in which their discussions and data have been used!) First, Dr. Edgar C. Bain, Vice President, Carnegie-Illinois Steel Corporation, whose amiable but merciless criticisms and always constructive and thoughtful suggestions help unfailingly to guard against pitfalls. Then to associates at Gary Steel Works, especially Mr. H. B. Wishart, Mr. W. K. Smith and Mr. V. Elliott, for great assistance in securing data. Also to Col. C. H. Greenall, Director of Laboratories, Frankford Arsenal, and his metallurgical staff, including Messrs. J. K. Desmond, H. Markus, D. F. Armiento, H. Rosenthal and Henry George, for numerous data and illustrations. Further to Dr. J. R. Low and Dr. M. Asimow, for helpful discussions of effects of states of stress during deformation and rupture, to Mr. J. M. Hodge for discussions and data, to the staff of the U. S. Steel Corporation Research Laboratory for advice and data, and to the Metallurgical Staff at Duquesne Steel Works. The individual acknowledgments will also be found under illustrations. Acknowledgment is also due to Mr. S. C. Snyder for incredibly meticulous scrutiny of manuscript. To all of these, grateful thanks.

Jan 1, 1946

The following is an incomplete list of members and guests who called at Institute headquarters during the period June 10, 1918 to July 10, 1918. F. C. Alsdorf, Tucson, Ariz. Emory M. Marshall, Camp Raritan, N. J. Juan F. Brandes, Santa Barbara, Cal. Jacques S. Negru, Camp Niagara, Ont. .H. Smith Clark, Kansas City, Mo. Arvid E. Nissen, High Bridge, N. J. J. S. Cunningham, Charleston, W. Va. Richard G. Place, So. Strafford, Vt. W. G. Eberhardt, Tucson, Ariz. Frank H. Probert, Berkeley, Cal. M. Eldredge, Bombay,. India. Martin A. Roudabush, Osterburg, Pa. A. D. R. Galloway, Accra, W. Africa;. P. H. Royster, Minneapolis, Minn. F. Hanst, Harrisburg, Pa. J. L. Schueler, Peoria, Ill. B. B. Hood, Chrome, N.. J. Henry B. Smith, New Britain, Conn. Paul S. King, Wilmington, Del. W. G. Sommer, Peoria, Ill. E. D. Kinney, Anaconda, Mont. A. L. Toenges, Roanoke, Va. E. W. Kohl, Jr., Philadelphia, Pa. G. D. B. Turner, Butte, Mont. James W. Love, Knoxville, Tenn. A. T. Ward, Bellefonte, Pa. Edwin A. Austin, formerly with the Yukon Gold Co., is superintendent of the Elkoro mine at Jarbidge, Nev. John W. Beard is now with the Cia Minera de Penoles, Ojuela, Dgo., Mexico, via Mapimi. R. S. Bonsib has accepted a position with the United States Emergency Fleet Corporation as District Safety Engineer, San Francisco, Cal. Albert Burch has been appointed by the Bureau of Mines to encourage the mining of chrome. F. B. Caldwell is working for the U. S. Bureau of Mines, under Albert Burch, in the investigation of chromite deposits. W. A. Carlyle has taken over the duties (in addition to his own) formerly assigned to E. P. Mathewson with the British America Nickel Corporation, at Sudbury, Canada. R. M. Catlin received the honorary degree of Doctor of Science at the recent commencement of Rutgers College, New Brunswick, N. J. S. K. Dahl is giving up his position as mill superintendent with the Messina Mines, which have been suspended, and is returning to this country. Algernon Del Mar has become manager of the Techatticup mines, El Dorado Canyon, Nev. Robert Dye has succeeded D. L. Forbes as manager of the Teck-Hughes at Kirkland Lake, Ont., Canada. J. O. Elton, superintendent of the Anaconda company's electrolytic zinc plant at Great Falls, Mont., is doing special work with the U. S. Bureau of Mines. R. B. Caples takes charge of the plant in his absence. George H. Gibbs has resigned his position as engineer at Messrs. T. & 1. Bradley & Sons, Ltd., Darlaston blast furnaces, Darlaston, and is now located at "Belmont." Litchfield Road, Rushall, Walsall, England. William D. Gordon, for the past 7 years manager of The Mine & Smelter Supply Co. at El Paso, has been elected president of Camphuis, Rives & Gordon,. Inc., and has opened American headquarters for the company at 81 New Street, New York, N. Y. E. Harms, for the past 16 years inn charge of metallurgical operations of the Torreon, Mexico; lead and copper smelter, has resigned and is now located at El Paso, Tex.

Jan 8, 1918

By B. E. Cornish

Most technical and statistical data published on pyrophyllite relating to production figures, uses, markets and sales, have in the past traditionally linked the mineral with talc and soapstone. This is due to several common superficial physical properties resulting in substitute uses and applications. However, these minerals are not similar in chemical composition and do not generally occur in a similar geological environment. Pyrophyllite now stands on its own in the marketplace-particularly in ceramic applications-due to the combination of excellent heat shock and creep resistance properties of the mineral. The increase in pyrophyllite use in the field of ceramics indicates the continuing realization of these marked unique properties. Several new fields of ceramic applications, previously the preserve of high-alumina materials, have been developed on the intrinsic properties of pyrophyllite. Pyrophyllite is an aluminum silicate with the molecular formula of AI2O34SiO2H2O. It would be more appropriate to group pyrophyllite with such materials as kyanite, diaspore, andalusite, and certain high-alumina clays in relation to its general applications (Stuckey, 1928). These materials all have good beat shock resistance properties at high temperatures and are widely used for the manufacture of refractories. For those reasons they are interchangeable in some applications. Pyrophyllite also has many uses in nonceramic applications, the most important to date being as a substitute for talc in fillers. The major pyrophyllite mining operations are located in the US, Japan, Korea, Canada, and Australia, where the mineral is widely used as a raw material for general ceramic, mineral filler, and dilutant applications. Commercial Applications Pyrophyllite was first used in the last century for lining stoves and fireplaces, and also in the carving and polishing of ornamental objects. The rise in industrial demand for new products and applications resulted in the introduction of pyrophyllite as an alternative, mainly for talc and soapstone. Industrial filler applications followed for paint, paper, cosmetics, rubber, pesticides, crayons and pencils, and bleaching soap. The first use of pyrophyllite in ceramic applications was prior to World War II, in the manufacture of ceramic cladding tiles in the US. This was followed by the production of kiln furniture refractories and whiteware when pyrophyllite was offered by suppliers in North Carolina as an alternative to some local clays. The largest tonnages of pyrophyllite used today are in refractory linings in steel ladles in Japan, as seen in Table 1. The consumption of pyrophyllite in Japan is second only to clay and chamotte among refractory raw materials used. Recently this technology has been adopted in Australia. Japanese and Australian practice has resulted in appreciable technical and economic benefits, particularly when pyrophyllite is used in combination with zircon. The potential growth for this application is substantial if US and European steelmakers follow. Investigation and research into the properties of pyrophyllite determined the following main advantages of pyrophyllite-based ceramics: high corrosion resistance for molten iron, steel, and slags; good heat shock resistance; good indices of deformation under load and hot creep resistance (refractories); and increase in mechanical strength of whiteware products promoted by a better distribution of mullite in finished products (also obtained at lower firing temperatures than normally required in production of triaxial ceramics). White cement

Jan 1, 1983

A shrinkage stope is an overhand stope in which the broken ore accumulates until the stope is completed to, or near, the level above. As broken ore generally occupies at least 60 per cent. more space than ore in place, about a third of this must be drawn out as the stope advances to leave a working space under the back. The ore remaining supports the miners and gives temporary support to walls, and is all withdrawn when the stope is finished. The shrinkage-stope method is applicable to steep-dipping deposits of strong ore with strong walls. It may be applied to narrow or wide veins, and is simple and cheap. Five examples, which include important and varied types of deposits, are given: namely, Kennecott, Homestake, Jarbidge district, Mogollon district, and Cripple Creek district.

Jan 1, 1925

By Sidney Powers

CONTENTS PAGE Distribution of fields 4 History of development 6 Origin of oil 7 Structure,, accumulation and migration 8 Reservoir rocks 9 Methods of drilling and exploration to Oil-field statistics 12 Description by regions: United States: Appalachian region 12 East-central states 17 Kansas 18 Oklahoma 19 Texas 24 Arkansas 32 Louisiana 33 Mississippi -.. 34 Rocky Mountain region 34 California : 37 Canada 41 Mexico 43 Cuba 46 Bibliography 46 THE purpose of this brief account of the occurrence of petroleum in North America is to make available to those who have a knowledge of geology, but who are not engaged in the petroleum industry, a few salient facts about the location of oil and gas fields, their productivity, the important structural types of accumulation and the age of the rocks containing petroleum. A few useful data and statistics are furnished, yet not complete statistics that are available elsewhere. Geology has been treated in simple terms because the reader is presumed to have little interest in the names of formations and of oil sands. Mineral deposits are more or less analogous. Whether oil or metals, minerals are found in rocks, largely in sedimentary rocks which carry water or have at one time carried it. A genetic or accumula-

Jan 1, 1931

By E. H. Jr. Dix

THE importance of aluminum-silicon alloys in the light alloy field is now generally recognized. Where silicon was once considered detrimental to the properties of aluminum, useful alloys now contain as much as 13 per cent. Furthermore, silicon is present as an impurity in aluminum of even the purest grades. Iron is another important impurity in aluminum and like silicon is found in small quantities in the purest aluminum available today. The manner of occurrence of iron and silicon in commercially pure aluminum and many of its alloys exerts, a very pronounced influence upon their properties. The effect of large quantities of iron in aluminum-silicon alloys is so detrimental that it has been found necessary to limit the allowable maximum percentage to as low a figure as is consistent with quantity production and satisfactory physical properties. The intimate relation existing between iron and silicon in aluminum and aluminum alloys makes necessary a more complete knowledge of this ternary system. This paper is divided into two principal parts, dealing respectively with aluminum-silicon solubility equilibria and the constitution of aluminum-iron-silicon alloys.

Jan 1, 1927

By Robert J. White

Strong's equation for calculating bottom-hole pressure reduction due to gas cutting of drilling mud is corrected, resulting in a simpler equation which is easier to use. Use of the equation is illustrated by examples. It is shown that reduction of weight of a 10 lb/gal mud by 50 per cent at the surface due to gas cutting produces only n 3 per cent decrease in hydrostatic head at the bottom of a 5,000-ft well. It is also shown that at the surface 5 volumes of air per volume of mud are required to reduce the apparent mud weight from 8.5 to 6.5 lh/gal in a 3,000-ft well. Illustrative graphs are included to show the effect of various degrees of gas cutting on apparent mud weight at depths of 2,000, .5,000 and 10,000 ft and to show variation of apparent mud weight, with depth for a 100 lb/cu ft (13.37 lb/gal) mud gas cut to 90 lb/cu ft (12.03 lb/gal) at the surface. INTRODUCTION In 1938, Strong' published the following equation for calculating reduction in bottom-hole pressure due to gas cutting of drilling mud h = 1/D [p + pn/100 In p + p(1-n/100)/p(1- n-100)] where: h = depth in feet P = pressure in atmospheres at depth h due to mud column only D = hydrostatic pressure in atmospheres of a col-umn of uncut mud 1 ft high p = back pressure at well-head (in atmospheres) n/100 = fraction by volume of gas in mud at well-head at back pres-sure p This equation was recently found to contain an error due to an incor-rect expression for variation of vol-ume fraction of gas with pressure. Values calculated by the original equation are close to the correct values for small percentages of gas for which it was derived but become increasingly erroneous as the gas content increases and are completely unusable at the very high gas con-tents employed in aerated mud. DERIVATION The nomenclature used is the same as in Strong's paper. The pres-sure dP exerted by a lamina of thickness dh at a depth h ft is ex-pressed by Eq. 1 where x = volume fraction of gas at depth h dP = D (l - x)dh . . . (1) When we express x in terms of the wellhead per cent gas n, the well-head pressure p and the pressure P at depth h, the result is Eq. 2. x = (np/p+p)/(100-n) + (np/P + p) When this is substituted in Eq. 1 and rearranged to separate the var-iables the result is dh = 1/D [dp + np/100-n dp/(P + p]. Integration between appropriate lim-its results in or if the wellhead is open so that p = 1 atm and we rearrange Eq. 4, the result is loss in head = hD — P = n/100-n In (P + 1) ...(5) Eq. 5 can be solved easily by successive approximation using hD as a first approximation for P on the right-hand side and calculating a first value for loss in head. This can then be used to get a new value of P using the left-hand side of the equation. Values converge very rap-idly even for quite large values of per cent by volume gas n. EXAMPLES The effect on bottom-hole pressure of 50 per cent gas cutting of the mud in a 5,000-ft well using 10 Ib/ gal mud will be calculated, we have: h = 5,000 ft 10 X 7.48 144 X 14.7 = 0.0353 atm/ft hD = 176.5 atm n = 50 Substituting these values in Eq. 5 and using hD as a first approxima-tion of P on the right, we have, approximate loss in head = 50/50 In (176.5 + 1) = 2.30 log 177.5 = 5.17 atm. We calculate a new value of P as follows:

Jan 1, 1958

By G. Austin Schroter

ALTHOUGH there is now an extensive literature on the bleaching clays, not a great deal of material is to be found concerning the geological fea-tures of these deposits and their bearing on problems of exploration and development. At the same time, chemical and crystallographic research on the clay minerals during the past few years has laid a suitable founda-tion upon which to base conclusions of economic value drawn from field observations. All of the criteria and deductions herein presented are based upon extensive field work by the senior author, both in the United States and Canada, and when subjected to the ultimate tests of development and exploitation they have held up remarkably well, despite the fact that many of these conclusions apparently have not been reviewed in the litera-ture heretofore. The nomenclature of the bleaching clays is rather confusing in the light of present-day commercial standards and has even led to litigation." The old term "fuller's earth" is largely based upon trade usage and the definition of the term therefore is dependent upon the changing standards of commerce. For statistical purposes the Bureau of Mines81 classes as "fuller's earth" all natural bleaching or filtering claylike materials that possess high adsorptive capacity without previous chemical treat-ment or activation. Conversely, the so-called activated or acid activated clays are now generally recognized as any clay mineral or mixture of the clay minerals whose adsorptive capacity has been developed to commercial standards by chemical or physical treatment. Therefore, without attempting to propose any additions to the nomen-clature of bleaching clays, this paper will refer to naturally adsorptive clays and activable clays, respectively, for the two types indicated.

Jan 1, 1940

By Arthur F. Wendt

The earliest knowledge of copper-ores in the Southwest was derived from the Mexicans, who, in the latter part of the last century, discovered and worked the Santa Rita copper mines, now situated

Jan 1, 1887

By F. W. Davis

SOME idea may be gained of the tremendous consumption of refractories by the open-hearth steel manufacturers from a statement made by A. T. Green at a meeting reported by T11.e Industrial Chemist of London, as follows: "At a very progressive steel plant in the Midlands, with a battery of five open-hearth furnaces working. twelve months and making 3000 tons of steel per week, the cost of refractories per ton of steel produced averages about $0.50 for the actual open- hearth casting and $0.12 for those operations incidental to the rolling of the metal." .These figures, when translated into the annual tonnage of steel, represent a very considerable expenditure.

Jan 1, 1930

By G. Austin Schroter

ALTHOUGH there is now an extensive literature on the bleaching clays, not a great deal of material is to be found concerning the geological fea-tures of these deposits and their bearing on problems of exploration and development. At the same time, chemical and crystallographic research on the clay minerals during the past few years has laid a suitable founda-tion upon which to base conclusions of economic value drawn from field observations. All of the criteria and deductions herein presented are based upon extensive field work by the senior author, both in the United States and Canada, and when subjected to the ultimate tests of development and exploitation they have held up remarkably well, despite the fact that many of these conclusions apparently have not been reviewed in the litera-ture heretofore. The nomenclature of the bleaching clays is rather confusing in the light of present-day commercial standards and has even led to litigation.76 The old term "fuller's earth" is largely based upon trade usage and the definition of the term therefore is dependent upon the changing standards of commerce. For statistical purposes the Bureau of Mines81 classes as "fuller's earth" all natural bleaching or filtering claylike materials that possess high adsorptive capacity without previous chemical treat-ment or activation. Conversely, the so-called activated or acid activated clays are now generally recognized as any clay mineral or mixture of the clay minerals whose adsorptive capacity has been developed to commercial standards by chemical or physical treatment. Therefore, without attempting to propose any additions to the nomen-clature of bleaching clays, this paper will refer to naturally adsorptive clays and activable clays, respectively, for the two types indicated.

Jan 1, 1940

By Alden Greninger

IN a recent study1 of the deformation of metastable beta copper-zinc and beta copper-tin crystals, it was established that the parallel markings that appear on the surface of these crystals after slight deformation represent lattice transformations. Stereographic analysis showed that in beta copper-tin, the poles of these markings deviated one or two degrees from poles of the form { 133 } . In beta copper-zinc the plane delineated by the markings corresponded to no one crystallographic plane of the matrix lattice; the marking poles deviated from 5° to 11° from poles of the form {110}, and were displaced only a few degrees from (110) zones. Inasmuch as the new transition lattices produced as the result of the deformation are different for each alloy, it was thought at first that the habits of the markings might be the result of a cooperation between matrix lattice and transformed lattice. (Both matrix lattices are body-centered cubic.) Such a cooperative effect is thought to obtain in the formation of Widmanstätten figures, for it is well known that the matrix lattice alone does not determine the habit assumed by a segregate phase. On the other hand, it is not inconceivable that the dissimilarity in mark-ing habit might be due to differences in deformation characteristics of beta brass and beta bronze. Barrett and co-workers2 have shown that slip-line habits in pure iron are markedly different from those in high-silicon ferrite; and although it has been repeatedly demonstrated that plates of a segregate phase do not necessarily form on the slip planes of the matrix lattice, deformation characteristics may be more intimately allied with plate formation when a transformation is made to occur as a result of plastic deformation. However, there is the fact that the orienta-tion of markings in metastable beta copper-zinc is the same whether the markings be produced by quenching, deformation, or liquid-air cooling; likewise, quenching and deformation markings in metastable beta copper-tin are oriented in the same way with respect to the beta matrix.

Jan 1, 1938

The problem of surface support in coal mining is naturally divided into three branches: 1. Surface covered with improvements of such value as compared with the value of the underlying coal, or with such elements of danger to mining, that absolute support is essential. 2. Surface with improvements of less value than the underlying coal such that moderate settlement may be permitted, but destructive settlement must be avoided, either by reason of danger to human life or unwarranted property damage. 3. Surface of relatively small value as compared with the underlying coal where destructive settlement may be permitted. First Problem In the first case it is evident that the original support must be maintained either (a) by leaving ample pillars and confining the coal recovery to a very conservative first mining, (b) by so supporting less conservative first mining by filling or flushing that the gradual deterioration of the pillars may be prevented and subsidence avoided, or (c) by incompressible support as masonry either as an adjunct to insufficient pillars or in place of the original coal support. a. From tests made by the Scranton Engineers Club, it appears safe to figure on 2000 Ib. per sq, in. as the safe squeezing strength of coal pillars in place, provided that these are, as usual, not higher than their least horizontal dimension; and from this figure the percentage of pillar to be left for various depths may be easily calculated. For safety in this

Jan 1, 1930

By Michael Perch, Charles C. Russell

Nearly 7 5 per cent of the total coke production in the United States in 1940 was consumed in blast furnaces. In 1939 the percentage was 69.9, and in 1938 it was 61.3. To produce a net ton of pig iron 1757 lb. of coke was required in 1940 and 1760 lb. in 1939. These figures indicate how dependent the production of pig iron is upon the production of coke. The rate of iron production is in some measure influenced by the physical and chemical characteristics of the coke. Blast-furnace operators believe that the physical properties of coke profoundly influence the operation of the furnace. Although it is true that coke of a wide variety of physical properties is used in American blast furnaces, the periodic fluctuation of these properties is one of the causes of irregularity of blast-furnace operation. The purpose of this paper is to present a broad picture of the physical properties of by-product coke that are generally considered to be important by coke-oven and blast-furnace operators. Effects of the kind of coal used, the preparation of the coal, the rate of coking, and other factors will be considered. Of all these variables, the kind of coal used is by far the most important. In this discussion use will be made of the method of coal classification by rank1 standardized by the American Society for Testing Materials. Although this method of classification has been an American standard for several years, it has not been given the attention it deserves, especially in connection with the selection of coal for production of coke. Despite the fact that many producers of blast-furnace coke are limited to some particular source or sources of coal, a good understanding of the principles involved in setting up the standard method of classification may lead to a better appreciation of the causes of changes in coke characteristics. Furthermore, where it is necessary to select new coals as a substitute for the original supply, this method of classification can be of great assistance. The data presented have been gathered from many sources, but no attempt has been made to cover the vast literature. Instead, some of the more important data have been selected to show how coals and their carbonization affect some of the physical properties of coke. It must be emphasized that generalizations concerning the behavior of coking coals are presented and that individual coals may vary widely from the specific behavior depicted. Nevertheless, it is believed that the data illustrate certain typical behaviors. Neither was it possible to cover completely all the factors involved; for example, the macroscopic constituents of coal are believed to have important effects on the physical properties of coke, but since there is little information available for such study, and since vitrain, clarain, and durain are neither

Jan 1, 1943

By Michael Perch, Charles C. Russell

Nearly 7 5 per cent of the total coke production in the United States in 1940 was consumed in blast furnaces. In 1939 the percentage was 69.9, and in 1938 it was 61.3. To produce a net ton of pig iron 1757 lb. of coke was required in 1940 and 1760 lb. in 1939. These figures indicate how dependent the production of pig iron is upon the production of coke. The rate of iron production is in some measure influenced by the physical and chemical characteristics of the coke. Blast-furnace operators believe that the physical properties of coke profoundly influence the operation of the furnace. Although it is true that coke of a wide variety of physical properties is used in American blast furnaces, the periodic fluctuation of these properties is one of the causes of irregularity of blast-furnace operation. The purpose of this paper is to present a broad picture of the physical properties of by-product coke that are generally considered to be important by coke-oven and blast-furnace operators. Effects of the kind of coal used, the preparation of the coal, the rate of coking, and other factors will be considered. Of all these variables, the kind of coal used is by far the most important. In this discussion use will be made of the method of coal classification by rank1 standardized by the American Society for Testing Materials. Although this method of classification has been an American standard for several years, it has not been given the attention it deserves, especially in connection with the selection of coal for production of coke. Despite the fact that many producers of blast-furnace coke are limited to some particular source or sources of coal, a good understanding of the principles involved in setting up the standard method of classification may lead to a better appreciation of the causes of changes in coke characteristics. Furthermore, where it is necessary to select new coals as a substitute for the original supply, this method of classification can be of great assistance. The data presented have been gathered from many sources, but no attempt has been made to cover the vast literature. Instead, some of the more important data have been selected to show how coals and their carbonization affect some of the physical properties of coke. It must be emphasized that generalizations concerning the behavior of coking coals are presented and that individual coals may vary widely from the specific behavior depicted. Nevertheless, it is believed that the data illustrate certain typical behaviors. Neither was it possible to cover completely all the factors involved; for example, the macroscopic constituents of coal are believed to have important effects on the physical properties of coke, but since there is little information available for such study, and since vitrain, clarain, and durain are neither

Jan 1, 1943

By Henry M. Howe, W. P. Barba

When this country went into the war, but two concerns, The Bethlehem Steel Co. and The Midvale Steel and Ordnance Co., knew how to make steel fit for great cannons and at these concerns there were relatively few men who knew the whole art. Fortunately, certain of these men put their knowledge at the service of the Government, and proceeded to instruct the metallurgists at the arsenals and at various steel works. Doctor Howe, then chairman of the Engineering Division of the National Research Council, suggested that this work might be facilitated, and the number of effective gun-steel makers thereby increased, if a detailed description of the best practice could be written, giving the reasons for the various steps, and issued with the endorsement of a committee composed of those who were evidently the most competent authorities. It was thought that something would be gained by clarification of the subject, and something by the eminent authority of the members of the committee. To that end, the Engineering Division appointed a committee, consisting of the gentlemen whose names follow, to mention on1y those who retained their connection with it. At this time there were serious difficulties in the manufacture, for the Government. of aircraft and high-speed engine crankshafts, of certain ordnance forgings, and of shells for both the Army and Navy. This Committee was asked to study and report upon these, with a view to betterment of practice. There were indications that the source of some of the difficulties went back to the melting of the steel and the production of the ingot. Hence, the committee first studied steel melting and ingot production, in order to guide the wartime manufacturers to an even larger percentage of useful production from the steel initially melted. Committee on Steel Ingots W. P. Barba, chairman, Ordnance Dept., U. S. A. (formerly Vice Pres. & Gen. Mgr., Midvale Steel Co., Philadelphia). George K. Burgess, Chief of Division of Metallurgy, U. S. Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C. Henry M. Howe, Then Chairman Engineering Division, National Research Council.

Jan 1, 1922

By W. P. Barba, Henry M. Howe

When this country went into the war, but two concerns, The Bethlehem Steel Co. and The Midvale Steel and Ordnance Co., knew how to make steel fit for great cannons and at these concerns there were relatively few men who knew the whole art. Fortunately, certain of these men put their knowledge at the service of the Government, and proceeded to instruct the metallurgists at the arsenals and at various steel works. Doctor Howe, then chairman of the Engineering Division of the National Research Council, suggested that this work might be facilitated, and the number of effective gun-steel makers thereby increased, if a detailed description of the best practice could be written, giving the reasons for the various steps, and issued with the endorsement of a committee composed of those who were evidently the most competent authorities. It was thought that something would be gained by clarification of the subject, and something by the eminent authority of the members of the committee. To that end, the Engineering Division appointed a committee, consisting of the gentlemen whose names follow, to mention on1y those who retained their connection with it. At this time there were serious difficulties in the manufacture, for the Government. of aircraft and high-speed engine crankshafts, of certain ordnance forgings, and of shells for both the Army and Navy. This Committee was asked to study and report upon these, with a view to betterment of practice. There were indications that the source of some of the difficulties went back to the melting of the steel and the production of the ingot. Hence, the committee first studied steel melting and ingot production, in order to guide the wartime manufacturers to an even larger percentage of useful production from the steel initially melted. Committee on Steel Ingots W. P. Barba, chairman, Ordnance Dept., U. S. A. (formerly Vice Pres. & Gen. Mgr., Midvale Steel Co., Philadelphia). George K. Burgess, Chief of Division of Metallurgy, U. S. Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C. Henry M. Howe, Then Chairman Engineering Division, National Research Council.

Jan 1, 1922

By Richard L. Gordon

Minerals long have been important commodities in international trade. As an inevitable result, the governments of the world have employed a wide variety of programs that affect the flow of trade. Roughly speaking, we may distinguish between the desire of more developed countries (MDCs) like the United States, western Europe, and Japan to control imports of minerals and the concern of less developed countries (LDCs), like India, about exploiting and exporting their minerals. The terminology used to describe different countries and the classification of specific countries into groups is unsettled and often changing. The poorest countries have been characterized as backward, undeveloped, underdeveloped, and developing. The problem seems to be in selecting a term that is both accurate and polite. Less developed seems, for reasons outlined by Hagen [pp. 51-57], the most convenient term. The borderline between an LDC and an MDC is always open to dispute. Objective measures are difficult to develop because of deficiencies in basic data, and enormous conceptual problems arise in making valid comparisons from even good data [see Hagen, pp. 7-28]. Thus, policies of the MDCs can be evaluated chiefly by using a few basic arguments for protectionist attitudes towards international trade. In dealing with the LDCs, a more far-ranging evaluation that covers general economic policy goals, the role of foreign investment, and the indirect effects of trade is required. This duality breaks down when trying to deal with the depressed areas in an MDC; here the issues are more akin to those associated with problems in an LDC. Similarly, variants of arguments used in LDCs appear in debates about foreign investments in MDCs. The whole discussion of minerals in LDCs, moreover, has obvious implications for MDCs like Canada and Australia. They, too, must face problems about the best utilization of their resources. THE RESTRICTION OF MINERAL TRADE BY DEVELOPED COUNTRIES[a] At least to some extent, the world's leading industrial nations have intervened to control the inflow of minerals. Such regulation is particularly pronounced for energy. Both the United States and western Europe employ

Jan 1, 1976

By Joseph G. Debanné

Foreword The three case histories and the liquid fuels planning scenario presented in this paper span a twenty year period, from the pioneering days of computers in the petroleum producing industry during the mid-fifties, to the energy crisis era of the seventies. Inasmuch as two of the main actors, Ian McKinnon and I, are featured in all three case histories, while I am currently involved in the fossil fuels scenario, this paper provides four related and personal spot readings along an evolutionary path: from the one dimensional technical domain to the multi-dimensional techno-socio-economic domain of computer applications in the petroleum industry. Coincident with this evolution in the direction of increasingly comprehensive and powerful computer applications, the evolution in hardware/software capability and in analytical power are also kept in perspective. The three case histories are: 1. The Bonnie Glen-Wizard Lake Case (Calgary, Alberta, 1955-1957); 2. The TransCanada-Great Lakes Gas Transmission Case (Ottawa-Washington, 1966); 3. The Westcoast Transmission - El Paso Pipelines Gas Export/ Import Case (Ottawa-Vancouver-Washington, 1966-1967). The liquid fuels planning scenario is a demonstration exercise rather than a case history; however, it represents an important point on the evolutionary curve and, provides a concrete example of tech-

Jan 1, 1977

By Hugh D. Pallister, Richard W. Smith

The Alabama flake-graphite industry has flourished only in times of war when importations of foreign graphite for crucible use have been greatly curtailed or cut off. World War I was a boom period and in 1918 some 30 plants produced 7,795,475 Ib. of flake graphite. The industry languished following the war and no graphite was produced from 1929 to 1939. The Federal Bureau of Mines began investigating the Alabama graphite deposits in 1940 and worked out modern recovery methods that were applied to production during part of World War 11. A prospecting program disclosed reserves of over 25 million tons of graphtic schists. In 1942 the War Production Board authorized the enlargement of the only plant then producing flake graphite and the construction of two new plants. Production of flake graphite from these three plants in 1943 is estimated at 8,100,000 lb. Increased imports from Madagascar late in 1943 shut down one of the new plants and curtailed production at the other. Alabama flake graphite has not yet been able to compete with Madagascar graphite for use in the manufacture of any but small graphite crucibles. The future of the industry must depend on meeting the higher carbon content demanded for other uses. Introduction The flake-graphite deposits of Alabama are confined to a narrow belt extending for about 60 miles southwest from the northeast corner of Clay County across Coosa County to the edge of the Coastal Plain in Chilton County (Fig. I). The continuity of the beds is broken by a 10-mile gap between Millerville in Clay County and Goodwater in Coosa County. The Clay County beds extend about 27 miles northwest of this gap, with a width of 3 to 4 miles near Millerville and of less than a mile at the northeast end. The Coosa-Chilton are? is about 33 miles long with a fairly consistent width of 2 to 3 miles. Geologically the graphite belt lies near the northeast boundary of the outcrop of metamorphic rocks of the Ashland series, a complex group of intensely folded and faulted beds of pre-Cambrian age composed mostly of quartz-mica schist, in which the mica is predominantly muscovite; garnet-mica schist, in which biotite is more common; and hornblende schist. Flake graphite is found in commercial quantities only in the quartz-mica schist. The best graphite, both in quantity and quality, is found in schist cut by numerous small pegmatite stringers along the planes of the schistosity. The pegmatites themselves contain little graphite, but the adjacent country rock is normally rich. . The schist was derived through the recrystallization of shale during the intrusion of the pegmatites, the graphite being derived from amorphous carbon in the shale. The intrusion of the pegmatites, and therefore the size and quantity .of the graphite flakes, seems to have a structural control.

Jan 1, 1948