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By A. C. Boyle

PaGE I. Introduction.........68 II. Location of the District,....... • 70 .. III. Stratigraphy...........73 Description of the Rocks.......73 Triassic Eruptives (Andesite Flows and Tuffs) ....73 Triassic Sediments (Shales and Slates)..75 Areal Geology ............75 Structure...-.......76 Folds............. 76 Faults..........79 Shear ...........80 Intrusives..........81 Alaskite Dike.........81 Andesitic Intrusion.......82 IV. PetrogRaphy of thE Rock Types......83 Andesite Flows.........84 Tuff 8...........84 Andesite Tuff........84 Rhyolite Tuff.....-.......85 Alaskite-Porphyry.......89 Andesite Dike........91 V. Description of the Mines......92 VI. Metalliferous Deposits ........ 95 Character of the Ores...........97 Mineralogy of the Ores.......97 Metallic Minerals.......97 Microscopic Character of the Ores...98 Secondary Enrichment....... 103 Genesis of the Ores ...........104 VII. The Sulphate Deposits.......109 Gypsum ..... HO Anhydrite......... ,... 110 Barite............ 110 Origin. with special reference to Gypsum....111 VIII. Summary.............. 113 IX. BIblYogRaphY.............114

Jan 1, 1915

By A. S. Richardson

AIR conditioning, or air cooling, for the improvement of ventilation in the Butte mines has come into increasing use during the past 10 years. In part, the methods practiced have been described in previous publications of the Institute, but some improvements on earlier methods have been made and a number of new features have been developed. This paper is presented as a record of progress made, and for the sake of completeness describes all general features of the work. The need for air conditioning in the ventilation of mines in the district arises from the fact that the temperature of the ground and mine water has shown a very great increase with increase in mining depth, and has now reached a maximum of slightly over 130ºF. The most difficult part of the ventilation problem is the maintenance of temperature and humidity of a satisfactory standard in the working places, especially on the lower levels. Although ordinary ventilation is adequate to maintain good conditions in most of the working places it is subject to a number of limitations at great depth. Most important among these limitations is that with increase in depth the air becomes heated before it reaches the working places, both by compression from increase in atmospheric pressure and by heat transferred to it from rock at high temperature, so that its capacity for lowering temperatures is greatly reduced before it reaches the operating zone. Increasing depth of mining also increases the distance traveled by the air in its passage through the mine, and this causes a corresponding increase in resistance to air flow, so that there is greater difficulty in maintaining even the same volume in circulation. Thus, in the face of a demand that the ventilating system have a very much greater capacity to remove heat from the mine, the tendency is for that capacity to diminish. The only evident alternatives were (I) the opening of additional air shafts to increase the volume of air in circulation, (2) an extension of the existing system that would be subject to the same limitations, or (3) the adoption of an entirely different method such as air cooling. Fortunately for an economic solution of the problem, the mean annual temperature of the surface atmosphere at Butte is about 40°F., with very low relative humidity in summer, so that there is unlimited natural cooling power at a temperature range adaptable to air-conditioning methods. METHODS Two similar methods of air conditioning are used, as necessitated by service requirements and dependent upon the equipment available. In one, which is the more important and has the greater cooling capacity, water is circulated in a closed circuit, and, alternately, first absorbs heat from warm mine air and then dissipates it in the surface atmosphere by cooling at a cooling tower. The second

Jan 1, 1941

By George M. Fowler

THE Tri-State district, as outlined in this paper, refers to the entire mineralized area in southwestern Missouri, southeastern Kansas and northeastern Oklahoma (Fig. 1). The part of the district in Missouri and near Galena, Kans., is still sometimes referred to as the Joplin district (Fig. 2). The Picher-Miami area is that part of the Tri-State district located contiguously in Kansas and Oklahoma in the vicinity of Baxter Springs, Picher and Miami. This paper is confined almost wholly to the ore deposits of the Tri-State district and particularly to the Picher-Miami area. Our study of the ore deposits of this district dates from late in 1925 (by Fowler) and early in 1927 (by Lyden) to the present. Our work has been confined almost entirely to the search for ore for numerous companies and individuals. It was not possible for us to undertake numerous highly interesting investigations which presented themselves but which would not immediately help in finding ore. We particularly refer to the general structural geology of the Ozark uplift, the genesis of the ore, and other problems of a similar nature. The local and general structural problems of the district are being solved gradually as the work progresses. The factors that control the loci of the several orebodies are evident. This paper is based almost exclusively upon our own observations. Most of the important mines in the Picher-Miami area were studied in detail. A map (Fig. 5) is included which shows this area and the properties we have examined to date. When it was convenient we visited, studied and compared structural relations in numerous mines in states outside the district. Some of these observations are noted in this paper.

Jan 1, 1932

By N. J. Grant, D. S. Bloom

N recent reports, Sully' and Beck and coworkers' I have advanced hypotheses concerning the formation of the phase. Both of these hypotheses are based on Pauling's theories of the electronic configuration of the elements of the first transition group. Sully considered that the number of electrons which can be absorbed in filling electron "holes" is the factor which determines whether or not the structure can form. Beck suggested that the presence of a certain concentration of electron "holes" is the controlling value. It can be shown that a similar criterion can be developed without making reference to Pauling's theories. Table I shows the elements of the first transition group and the incidence of the a structure in the binary systems of these elements according to the data presently available. Also appended is the number of electrons considered to exist in the 3d-4s levels of these elements. If the atomic percentages for the phase are listed as shown in Table 11, and if the number of electrons in the 3d-4s levels per atom is calculated for the a boundary values, the results are as shown in the last column. It can be seen that the numerical values are all in the vicinity of 7 electrons per atom. This is true also for the ternary Cr-Mo-Ni IT phase, which occurs in a system in which none of the binary compositions are known to develop the phase. In the Fe-Mo binary, the high temperature a phase, which occurs at a composition of 50 atomic pct of each element, also yields a ,;1 e of 7 electrons per atom. From inspection of Tables I and 11, it develops that any series of sequential numbers which is assigned to the elements under consideration will result in the numbers pertaining to a compositions grouping themselves around one specific number. It does not follow, however, that this random number necessarily has physical significance. Such a point has already been discussed by Hume-Rothery." One interesting point develops from this study, however, and that is the position of manganese with reference to the other elements and to the phase. In the system used here, the formation of phase is associated approximately with the value of 7 electrons per atom, which is also the number of electrons per atom that manganese has. Manganese, it will be recalled, exists in three different crystal forms, none of which are the usual, simpler metallic forms; on the other hand, elements just to the left of manganese (in Table I) generally have lower coordination-number structures (body-centered cubic) than do elements to the right of manganese (face-centered cubic). The contribution to a complex crystal structure by the interalloying of elements from opposite sides of manganese is significant in that the a phase is formed in binary systems including one element from each side of manganese, with manganese capable of participating with both sides. It is indeed an interesting coincidence that manganese, with 7 electrons per atom, solidifies in complex crystal forms, and that when alloys of the transition elements are made which have seven 3d-4s electrons per atom, they, too, tend to assume a complex crystal form. From the above, it might be deduced that the study of the a phase might be advanced by a critical examination of the element manganese and how its structure is affected by small additions of elements which change the 3d-4s electrons per atom number. The role of atom size would also be of interest in formation. References ' A. H. Sully: The Sigma Phase in Binary Alloys of the Transition Elements. Journal Inst. Metals (1951) 80, Part 4, p. 173. 2 S. Rideout, W. D. Manly, E. L. Kamen, B. S. Lement, and P. A. Beck: Intermediate Phases in Ternary Alloy Systems of Transition Elements. Trans. AIME (1951) 191, p. 872; Journal of Metals (October 1951). "W. Hume-Rothery, H. M. Irving, and R. J. P. Williams: The Valencies of the Transition Elements in the Metallic State. Proc. Royal Soc. (September 1951) 208A. p. 431.

Jan 1, 1954

By F. W. Maclennan

ORE production from the property of the Miami Copper Co. began early in 1911. Until 1925 this ore came from the so-called high-grade orebodies, which contained a little over 2 per cent. copper. This ore was mined by the following methods. 1. Top slicing after mining the peaks by square setting, which produced 4,524,347 tons, including ore from square setting. 2. Shrinkage stoping with sublevel caving of the pillars, which produced 2,230,577 tons. 3. Undercut caving with hand tramming, which, produced 15,427,672 tons. Estimating December tonnage, the total ore mined to the end of 1929 will amount to slightly more than 43,000,000 tons. The first method was described by E. G. Deane1 and the second by D. B. Scott,1 and the third, together with a general, description of the mine, by J. H. Hensley, Jr.1 The geology of the district has been worked out by. Dr. F. L. Ransome.2

Jan 1, 1930

By A. J. Langhammer

A. J. Langhammer.—That is rather asking a question of the wrong man. However, I will reply to the question from our point of view. There is a considerable amount of iron powder available but the properties vary over a wide range. Powder metallurgy has progressed to the stage where we recognize certain requirements in powdered iron, and what may be a good powdered iron for one application will not necessarily fit the picture for the next one. Further, I believe that there is room for great improvement in the properties of powdered iron. Also, that there is only a limited quantity of powdered iron available having certain specific properties in which we are at the moment interested. F. P. Peters.—May I have a word? With all possible respect to the contributions of the Chrysler Corporation (and they have been tremendous) to the war effort, I think it is easy to get from part of Mr. Langhammer's discussion a false impression of vaster possibilities than really exist. It would be well if in addition to Mr. Langhammer some other manufacturers of machine parts' might tell us in the next few minutes some of the limitations they have found. For example, what is the maximum tensile strength that is being produced in a commercial part in production today? And what is the actual size limitation on bearings that are in operation and are standing up well? We should always bear in mind the fact—and I think Mr. Langhammer will agree with me— that quoting on a particular part does not necessarily mean placing it in production. In many cases it may be several months before the quotation is resolved and we know whether the part can be made. Let us open up this thing for a little free-for-all discussion of some of the ceilings that do exist in the design of machine parts made by powder metallurgy. The ceiling is not unlimited, and Mr. Langhsmmer will agree with that, 3 am sure. H. Hendriks.*—I do not think that there is so much limitation in the making of powder metallurgic manufactured parts as mentioned. Last year we had the problem of making dies for a special machine used in the manufacturing of slide fasteners. This part was wearing out very fast. It was very hard to make, it had to be hobbed out of a special steel and it was a difficult thing to manufacture in general. The tolerances were one half of one thousandth of one inch on all dimensions. We submitted this die to a manufacturer of powder-metal parts. He thought that it was impossible, but we were not as skeptical as he was and decided to try it anyway. The Canadian General Electric Carboloy Division, in Toronto, gave us then the design for the dies, which we made to their specifications. When the first part was delivered, we submitted it to our Inspection Department and its check showed that all the tolerances were right on the dot. They delivered I9 parts of exact specification, then they went off the beam; they could not keep to the tolerances. It took them a long time to get back again. We do not know what happened, but the main point I want to' make is that if a problem is attacked in the right may, the dies are made right and corrected as to dimensions found out by experiment, I do not think that there is so much diffculty in making powder-metal parts to close tolerances.

Jan 1, 1945

By L. H. Levenson, Charles S. Barrett

Plastic flow in metal crystals and the changes in orientation resulting from it are generally understood to take place by the following fundamental mechanisms: (1) slip on crystallographic planes, (2) homogeneous crystal rotation resulting from the slip, (3) bending of the 1attice between the planes of slip, and, under certain circumstances, (4) twinning. This paper and a preceding one on iron subjected to uniaxial compression1 concern two additional processes that must now be added to this list: (5) the formation of deformation bands, and (6) the bending and rotation of these bands. The present investigation yields a new understanding and definiteness to the common terms so loosely used when speaking of cold-worked metals —('grain fragmentation," "elongated grains," and "deformation twins," "deformation bands," "etch bands," or "X-bands." Bands have been noted on the polished and etched surfaces of cold-worked metals by various investigators for more than 25 years, ‡ yet their nature and their significance have been so little understood that they are not treated in the most comprehensive modern texts on the deformation of crystals. The experiments in this series show that they are one of the fundamental processes in the deformation of metals, of importance in the development of preferred orientations, in work-hardening (since they have the effect of reducing the effective grain size and interfering with slip), and in the recrystallization process. The present experiments were performed on the same stock of material that was used in the earlier compression experiments1—hydrogen-purified mild steel in which the carbon content had been reduced to the limit detectable under the microscope and in which single crystals could be grown by a strain-anneal treatment.2

Jan 1, 1939

By Charles S. Barrett, L. H. Levenson

Plastic flow in metal crystals and the changes in orientation resulting from it are generally understood to take place by the following fundamental mechanisms: (1) slip on crystallographic planes, (2) homogeneous crystal rotation resulting from the slip, (3) bending of the 1attice between the planes of slip, and, under certain circumstances, (4) twinning. This paper and a preceding one on iron subjected to uniaxial compression1 concern two additional processes that must now be added to this list: (5) the formation of deformation bands, and (6) the bending and rotation of these bands. The present investigation yields a new understanding and definiteness to the common terms so loosely used when speaking of cold-worked metals —('grain fragmentation," "elongated grains," and "deformation twins," "deformation bands," "etch bands," or "X-bands." Bands have been noted on the polished and etched surfaces of cold-worked metals by various investigators for more than 25 years, ‡ yet their nature and their significance have been so little understood that they are not treated in the most comprehensive modern texts on the deformation of crystals. The experiments in this series show that they are one of the fundamental processes in the deformation of metals, of importance in the development of preferred orientations, in work-hardening (since they have the effect of reducing the effective grain size and interfering with slip), and in the recrystallization process. The present experiments were performed on the same stock of material that was used in the earlier compression experiments1—hydrogen-purified mild steel in which the carbon content had been reduced to the limit detectable under the microscope and in which single crystals could be grown by a strain-anneal treatment.2

Jan 1, 1939

By H. J. Ramey

As fluids move through a wellbore, there is transfer of heat between fluids and the earth due to the diflerence between fluid and geothermal temperatures. This type of heat transmission is involved in drilling and in all producing operations. In certain cases, quantitative knowledge of wellbore heat transmission is very important. This paper presents an approximate solution to the wellbore heat-transmission problem involved in injection of hot or cold fluids. The solution permits estimation of the temperature of fluids, tubing and casing as a function of depth and time. The result is expressed in simple algebraic form suitable for slide-rule calculation. The solution assumes that heat transfer in the wellbore is steady-state, while heat transfer to the earth will be unsteady radial conduction. Allowance is made for heat resistances in the wellbore. The method used may be applied to derivation of other heat problems such as flow through multiple strings in a wellbore. Comparisons of computed and field results are presented to establish the usefulness of the solution. INTRODUCTION During the past few years, considerable interest has been generated in hot-fluid-injection oil-recovery methods. These methods depend upon application of heat to a reservoir by means of a heat-transfer medium heated at the surface. Clearly, heat losses between the surface and the injection interval could be extremely important to this process. Not quite so obvious is the fact that every injection and production operation is accompanied by transmission of heal between wellbore fluids and the earth. Previously, the interpretation of temperature logs',' has been the main purpose of wellbore heat studies. The only papers dealing specifically with long-time injection operations are those of Moss and White3 and Lesem, et al.' The purpose of the present study is to investigate wellbore heat transmission to provide engineering methods useful in both production and injection operations, and basic techniques useful in all wellbore heat-transmission problems. The approach is similar to that of Moss and White:' DEVELOPMENT The transient heat-transmission problem under consideration is as follows. Let us consider the injection of a fluid down the tubing in a well which is cased to the top of the injection interval. Assuming fluid is injected at known rates and surface temperatures, determine the temperature of the injected fluid as a function of depth anti time. Consideration of the heat transferred from the injected fluid to the formation leads to the following equations. For liquid, Eqs. 1, 1A and 2 are developed in the Appendix. These equations were developed under the assumption that physical and thermal properties of the earth and wellbore fluids do not vary with temperature, that heat will transfer radially in the earth and that heat transmission in the wellbore is rapid compared to heat flow in the formation and. thus, can be represented by steady-state solutions. Special cases of this development have been presented by Nowakl and Moss and White.3 Both references are recommended for excellent background material. Nowak' presents very useful information concerning the effect of a shut-in period on subsequent temperatures. Since one purpose of this paper is to present methods which may be used to derive approximate solutions for heat-transmission problems associated to those specifically considered here, a brief discussion of associated heat problems is also presented in the Appendix. Analysis of the derivation presented in the Appendix will indicate that many terms can be re-defined to modify the solution for application to other problems. Before Eqs. 1, 1A and 2 can be used, it is necessary to consider the significance of the over-all heat-transfer coefficient U and the time function f(t). Thorough discussions of the concept of the over-all heat-transfer coefficient may be found in many references on heat transmission. See McAdams5 or Jakob," for example. Briefly, the over-all coefficient U considers the net- resistance to heat flow offered by fluid inside the tubing, the tubing wall, fluids or solids in the annulus, and the casing wall. The effect of radiant heat transfer from the tubing to the casing and resistance to heat flow caused by scale or wax on the tubing or casing may also be included in the over-all coefficient. According to McAdams, on page 136 of Ref. 5>

By Baxter C. Madden

Stress corrosion is defined and certain examples are illustrated. A number of test methods, to determine the resistance of materials to stress corrosion, are being developed at Wright Field. The criterion as to the validity of a method is stated. Three types of specimens and the method of stressing each type are described. Five different corrosive conditions are set forth. The results of tests to date, although too few for any general conclusions to be arrived at, are presented. The program for the continuation of the investigation is indicated. A bibliography is included. The development of the method of loading a cantilever-type specimen, so that a nearly constant stress at a large deflection may be realized, is presented as Appendix I.

Jan 1, 1945

By Walter Rosenhain

In selecting solid solutions for the subject of this lecture I have been guided by several considerations. The bodies known under that somewhat paradoxical name play a most important part in all types of alloys; consequently, a deeper knowledge of their constitution must 'be of fundamental importance to both metallurgical science and practice. Further, having been asked to deal with some of the more theoretical aspects of metallurgy, I have been tempted to describe certain considerations, which I believe to be novel, in regard to the nature of solid solutions. These considerations constitute a theory that requires much experimental confirmation, but they have passed the stage of speculations, for experimental evidence has become available and one inference after another, that can be derived from the theory, is found to be in accord with well-known facts. In putting before you these ideas and inferences, it must be understood that detailed quantitative proof of every step cannot be furnished. Our conclusions must therefore be stated with the reservation that their acceptance must depend on the manner in which the discovery of fresh facts may either confirm or confound them. If we wish to understand the structure of solid solutions we nust carefully realize the manner in which these bodies are formed in alloys. The formation of solid solutions is by no means confined to alloys, but it is desirable to confin5 attention, at the outset, to intermetallic solid solutions. It is not easy to formulate a precise definition of the term "solid solution." It may be said that a solid solution is a crystalline body formed from a liquid solution or from an intimate mixture of solids, or of liquid and solid, that retains in the solid state an admixture of the two substances (solvent and solute) as intimate as that which exists in a liquid solution. The term is undoubtedly paradoxical, for one usually associates solution with a liquid, but the difficulty cannot be evaded by using such a term as solidified solution, for this might refer to a solution that has set, or congealed, without undergoing crystallization. The German term mischkry stall avoids the difficulty and appears to

Jan 1, 1923

By Walter Rosenhain

In selecting solid solutions for the subject of this lecture I have been guided by several considerations. The bodies known under that somewhat paradoxical name play a most important part in all types of alloys; consequently, a deeper knowledge of their constitution must 'be of fundamental importance to both metallurgical science and practice. Further, having been asked to deal with some of the more theoretical aspects of metallurgy, I have been tempted to describe certain considerations, which I believe to be novel, in regard to the nature of solid solutions. These considerations constitute a theory that requires much experimental confirmation, but they have passed the stage of speculations, for experimental evidence has become available and one inference after another, that can be derived from the theory, is found to be in accord with well-known facts. In putting before you these ideas and inferences, it must be understood that detailed quantitative proof of every step cannot be furnished. Our conclusions must therefore be stated with the reservation that their acceptance must depend on the manner in which the discovery of fresh facts may either confirm or confound them. If we wish to understand the structure of solid solutions we nust carefully realize the manner in which these bodies are formed in alloys. The formation of solid solutions is by no means confined to alloys, but it is desirable to confin5 attention, at the outset, to intermetallic solid solutions. It is not easy to formulate a precise definition of the term "solid solution." It may be said that a solid solution is a crystalline body formed from a liquid solution or from an intimate mixture of solids, or of liquid and solid, that retains in the solid state an admixture of the two substances (solvent and solute) as intimate as that which exists in a liquid solution. The term is undoubtedly paradoxical, for one usually associates solution with a liquid, but the difficulty cannot be evaded by using such a term as solidified solution, for this might refer to a solution that has set, or congealed, without undergoing crystallization. The German term mischkry stall avoids the difficulty and appears to

Jan 1, 1923

By L. T. Leyson, U. C. Tainton

Some time ago, at ameeting of the Institute Prof. J. W. Richards1 said, "I take exception to the statement that all the factors in the production of electrolytic zinc were known long ago.... There is possible in my opinion an improvement of perhaps 50 per cent. in the new electrolytic processes." An examination of the literature of the subject will show the justness of Professor Richards' contention. The work of the earlier investigators was carried on in the shadow of difficulties that, today, are hardly more than memories. We seldom hear now of zinc sponge, that bête noir of the electrolytic-zinc pioneers. Zinc sponge was the name given to a peculiar, soft, black, non-adherent form of zinc deposit that was utterly useless for melting into ingot form. At the big plant at Cockle Creek, New South Wales, in 1897, Edgar Ashcroft2 said that the solution in the plant would suddenly, and without ascertainable cause, go' "bad" and begin to deposit spongy zinc. The most delicate, even spectroscopic, methods of analysis were unable to detect any difference between "good" solution and "bad" solution; either form might change to the other on being kept for a while. When it is added that an outbreak of this insidious disease (which appeared to be infectious, or at least contagious) could be dealt with only by discarding the solution and washing out all tanks and pipe lines, some idea may be gathered of the troubles of the zinc electrometallurgist in what may be spoken of as the "sponge age" of electrolytic zinc. Thanks to the efforts of a number of investigators, we are today able to diagnose with considerable certitude the nature of the malady that puzzled Ashcroft and his co-workers. The researches of Mylius and

Jan 1, 1924

By G. G. Brown

Enthalpy-entropy diagrams are presented for natural gases of 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, and 1.0 gravity over the pressure range of 5 to 10,000 Ib. per sq. in. and temperature range of 32º to 700°F. The charts indicate directly the work requirement and temperature rise for adiabatic compression or temperature change for free emansion of natural eases. Computation and Uses of Charts The Mollier diagram (Fig. 4), in which the enthalpy (heat content) is plotted against the entropy with lines of constant temperature, pressure,, and in some cases volume, has been found most convenient when dealing with the compression, expansion, and flow of fluids. In dealing with the flow of fluids, the sum of the increase in the enthalpy, AH, plus the increase in kinetic energy, AM —, plus the increase in potential energy, ?MZ, representing the total increase in energy of the fluid in flow, is equal to the sum of the heat q, and work added, —w, to the fluid while flowing between the entrance and exit of the flow system. AH + AM— + ?MZ = q-w [1] In cases where there is no significant change in potential energy or in kinetic energy (velocity), it follows that the increase in enthalpy is equal to the total energy supplied to the fluid. Under such conditions' the changes in the property of the fluid as it flows through a throttling valve, choke, or any other similar arrangement, may be read directly from the enthalpy-entropy diagram by following a horizolltal line between the known pressures' When compressing Or expanding a gas by means of a Or or engine in which no heat is added to or subtracted from the gas, but only work done, the changes in the properties of the gas may be determined along a vertical line of constant entropy between the entering and exit pressures. The power required for the compression of the gas may be readily determined by converting the increase in enthalpy into the desired units. The enthalpy-entropy diagram for natural gases is to the gas engineer what the steam diagram is to the steam-power engineer. For this reason it would be extremely convenient if a reasonably satisfactory enthalpy-entropy diagram could be prepared as a function of the gravity of the gas. A careful study of the known properties of natural gas indicate that this is possible. The effect of temperature upon the enthalpy at constant pressure is expressed as the "heat capacity" or "specific heat" of the gas. The best available data for natural and petroleum refinery gases indicates the relationship shown in Fig. I. From this it is clear that the specific heat of natural gases is a function only of the gas gravity and the temperature at atmospheric pressure. The effect of pressure on the enthalpy of natural gases is dependent upon the pressure-volume-temperature relationships,

Jan 1, 1945

By Earl Bardwell

THE determination of suitable and safe annealing temperatures is one of the most important problems arising in the operation of a copper rolling mill. Certain of the larger mills have worked this problem out for themselves and in these mills the operation has become more or less standardized. In some of the mills pyrometers are used to measure the temperature of the annealing furnaces and careful watch is kept to see that overheating does not take place. In a considerable number of the mills, however, dependence is placed entirely on the judgment of the operator. The almost total lack of literature bearing on this subject seems sufficient warrant for the publication of this paper. The discussion of this subject naturally divides itself into two parts: (1) The effect of annealing temperature on physical properties; and (2) changes in the microstructure of refined copper due to cold rolling and annealing. I. THE EFFECT OF ANNEALING TEMPERATURE ON PHYSICAL PROPERTIES For the purpose of investigating this phase of the subject six test bars were selected, varying in oxygen content between the limits of 0.036 and 0.070 per cent. The chemical composition of each of these test bars was as follows:

Jan 8, 1914

By A. H. Geisler, J. H. Keeler

Preferred orientations in rolled and annealed titanium sheets were determined by the Geiger counter spectrometer X-ray diffraction technique. Five annealing textures dependent upon the temperature range of annealing were found, and in order of increasing annealing temperature pendent upon the temperature range are: 1—a deformation like texture, 2—a rotated inorder a-recrystallization temperature texture, 3-a retained u-recrysraIlization texture, on annealing at lower temperatures of the ß-region, 4—a transformation texture based on recrystallized a and predicted by the Burgers' relationship, and 5—a ,ß-cube texture. These results are examined in terms of current theories of recrystallization textures. UMEROUS investigators have described the tex- ture obtained by cold rolling the hexagonal metals, titanium, zirconium, and beryllium, which have c/a ratios less than that of ideal packing, 1.633. The basal planes are rotated out of the rolling plane, about the rolling direction, so that the basal poles are tilted toward the transverse direction as shown schematically in Fig. la. In all instances but one,' it was also reported that the [1010] direction was parallel to the rolling direction (see Fig. lb). Hot rolling has been reported as causing a similar tilt of the basal poles in the transverse direction (see Fig. la) and causing the [1010] direction also to be parallel to the rolling direction as shown schematically in Fig. lb. Annealing after deformation does not appreciably change the tilt of the basal poles in the transverse direction." Beryllium2-7 continues to have the [1010] direction in the rolling direction after annealing, and similar observations for titanium and zirconium' . have been reported for annealing at fairly low temperatures, again as in Fig. lb. At higher annealing temperatures, however, the recrystallized grains of titanium" and zirconium have an orientation such that the [1120] direction is approximately in the rolling direction, although the basal poles are still inclined in the transverse direction. Figs. la and lc show the resulting orientations schematically. This change in orientation has been described as a nominally ±30° rotation of the hexagonal crystallites about the basal poles of the cold rolled texture and is apparent from the results which are summarized in Table I for investigations with the X-ray diffraction technique employing film. The angles y, , and ß are indicated in Fig. 2 which represents the stereographic projection of (1070) poles for the mean orientation of a pole figure. Texture determinations for titanium using the Geiger counter spectrometer have provided similar results except that in some instances additional components of the texture were proposed, as shown by the summary of data in the upper half of Table 11. On the other hand, the spectrometer technique, when applied to zirconium,* has revealed a splitting Recently completed studies of the textures of annealed zirconium", show zirconium to possess textures very similar to those reported here for titanium. Therefore, much of this discussion will include zirconium by virtue of its close similarity to titanium in pref erred orientations. of the intense areas of the pole figure for samples annealed at 600°C. This splitting could be described by a 7" rotation of the tilt axis about the normal to the rolling plane. Such a splitting for the annealed texture relative to the cold rolled texture was not observed in other determinations for either zirconium or titanium using the less sensitive film X-ray methoe and makes the relationship between the two types of texture more complex than the simple rotation about the (0001) pole based on film work. The more precise investigations on zirconium permit the descriptions in the lower part of Table 11, which show that the texture depends quantitatively on the temperature of annealing. When zirconium is annealed at temperatures up to 400°C, the texture is similar to the cold rolled texture, while annealing in the range 500" to 900°C produces a texture which is only approximately described as [11%] in the rolling direction. More precisely described results for zirconium show that the two types of splitting ( 1—about an axis in the rolling plane through an angle given in the second column in Table II and 2—about the normal to the rolling plane through an angle given in the third column of Table 11) depend on annealing temperature. The [1120 is the rolling direction only when the annealing temperature is in the vicinity of 900°C

Jan 1, 1957

By M. W. Hayward

THE object of this paper is to record and tabulate the data and field observations obtained by the writers and their associates during 10 years of intensive study of lead-zinc deposits in the Cretaceous limestone areas in Northern Mexico, particularly in mines owned by the Cia. Minera de Peñoles, S. A. At the El Paso meeting of the Institute in October, 1930, J. G. Barry made the suggestion that a committee be appointed to correlate the ideas and theories which have been put forth by the numerous engineers and geologists who, during recent years, have made a study of the ore deposits in the area under consideration. The first step in a work of this nature would be to record all of the observed facts, and these facts would have to be accepted by those who attempted to formulate a theory of ore deposition. It is with this idea in mind that the writers have described as accurately as possible the actual, observed facts pertaining to the occurrence of the lead-zinc ores in dolomites or dolomitic horizons. By most writers the term "dolomite," is loosely used to designate magnesium-bearing limestones, regardless of the percentage of MgO present. Since no, true dolomites exist in the areas to be described, we shall also loosely use the terms dolomite or dolomitic limestone to designate those beds having a magnesia content of 5 per cent MgO or more. For a number of years the writers have been impressed with the fact that in areas where dolomite beds occur a large percentage of the lead ore is found in these beds, in spite of the fact that such beds may be overlain or underlain by pure limestone, which one would assume to be just as favorable for replacement as the dolomite, if not more 'so on account of its being more soluble in acid solutions than the dolomite. It is true that in some limestone areas, such as the Erupcion-Ahumada districts, Chihuahua, and Providencia, Zacatecas, where no dolomite beds have been found, large tonnages of lead ores have been mined. We venture to predict, however, that had there been dolomitic beds in these areas, the

Jan 1, 1931

By L. L. Wyman

THE exact nature of the changes that take place in the iron-nickel alloys, giving rise to the interesting and useful expansion alloys in the Invar range, has yet to be fully understood. Similarly, the ternary iron-nickel-cobalt alloys, which also possess such commercially useful expansion characteristics, 1,2 are concerned with transformations that appear to be identical with those found in the parent iron-nickel alloys. The investigations on iron-nickel alloys in the range 26 to 29 per cent Ni have been reported by several authors" wherein it is shown that there are factors other than temperature, such as stress and grain size, which play an important part in determining the temperature at which the low-temperature transformation takes place. It will be shown in this paper that the ternary iron-nickel-cobalt alloys having nickel contents comparable to the alloys mentioned above behave in a parallel manner. The alloys in the range of 26 to 31 per cent Ni and 16 to 21 per cent Co have a coefficient of expansion of about 4.0 X 10-1 per degree Centi-grade, and the alloys in this range of composition find considerable application in making glass-to-metal seals, because these expansion properties so well match commercial glasses. The behavior of these alloys is not a simple matter, for it has been observed in alloys of 28.5 per cent Ni and 18.5 Co that severe working can cause the appearance of a second phase having a needlelike structure similar to the martensite structure in carbon steels. Fig. 1 shows the change brought about in an alloy of this composition when a strip of this material was cut with tin shears. This second phase has been identified as the body-centered cubic alpha phase, and it is the purpose of this paper to describe the results of some of the preliminary investigations in the study of the changes involved in these alloys.

Jan 1, 1939

By J. M. Hassler

Nowhere can there be found a more misleading statement than the old one that "Iron can be manufactured cheaper in the South." During the past decade ironmakers and users of iron have heard varied and sundry stories of the wonderful resources of the Birmingham district, including abundant ore and coal fields, cheap labor, a wonderful climate and similar industrial Utopian statements. Birmingham represents the major portion of the iron business in the South, and as Birmingham fares so goes the iron business of the South. The intent of this paper is to shed some light on the actual conditions surrounding ironmaking in the South, especially in the Birmingham, or North Alabama, district. By a presentation of facts it is desired to point out that the "cheap iron" of the industrial South is a thing of the past, primarily because of increased labor cost and because labor is radically different in performance to what it was years ago. Also, because most of the raw materials needed in ironmaking that would be classed better than inferior are gone. Important Factors The several important factors that have been responsible for this change are : 1. Shrinkage of the iron business in the South. 2. Increased labor cost. 3. The development of the South, with an industrial trend, without a substantial increase of its own iron-consuming market. 4. Increased freight rates, which has narrowed the market that might be reached from this district. 5. Depletion of the better grades of raw materials, both ore and coal. Shrinkage of Iron Business in South.—Table 1 was prepared in early 1936 and revised in 1937, of blast-furnace units in the North Alabama district, considering the year 1936 compared with a maximum number of furnace units of previous years, the peak point being very near the year

Jan 1, 1937

By Herbert Clark Hoover, Lou Henry Hoover

QUESTIONS as to the methods of smelting ores and of obtaining metals I discussed in Book IX. Following this, I should explain in what manner the precious metals are parted from the base metals, or on the other hand the base metals from the precious'. Frequently two metals, occasionally more than two, are melted out of one ore, because in nature generally there is some amount of gold in silver and in copper, and some silver in gold, copper, lead, and iron ; likewise some copper in gold, silver, lead, id iron, and some lead in silver ; and lastly, some iron in copper2. But I will begin with gold. Gold is parted from silver, or likewise the latter from the former, whether it be mixed by nature or by art, by means of aqua valens3, and by powders which consist of almost the same things as this aqua. In order to preserve the sequence, I will first speak of the ingredients of which this aqua is made, then of the method of making it, then of the manner in which gold is parted from silver or silver from gold. Almost all these ingredients contain vitriol or alum, which, by themselves, but much more when joined with saltpetre, are powerful to part silver from gold. As to the other things that are added to them, they cannot individually by their own strength and nature separate those metals, but joined they are very powerful. Since there are many combinations, I will set out a few. In the first, the use of which is common and general, there is one libra of vitriol and as much salt, added to a third of a libra of spring water. The second contains two librae of vitriol, one of salt-petre, and as much spring or river water by weight as will pass away whilst the vitriol is being reduced to powder by the fire. The third consists of four librae of vitriol, two and a half librae of saltpetre, half a libra of alum, and one and a half librae of spring water. The fourth consists of two librae of vitriol, as many librae of saltpetre, one quarter of a libra of alum, and three-quarters of a Mbra of spring water. The fifth is composed of one libra of saltpetre,

Jan 1, 1950